Luther A. Ingersoll
General Index, see List
Documents
Frontispiece: Luther A. Ingersoll, 1908b
Ingersoll's Century History Santa Monica Bay Cities (Being Book Number Two of Ingersoll's Century Series of California Local History Annals) Prefaced with A Brief History of the State of California A Condensed History of Los Angeles County 1542 to 1908 Supplemented with An Encyclopedia of Local Biography and Embellished with Views of Historic Landmarks and Portraits of Representative People. Luther A. Ingersoll Los Angeles 1908, 512 pp.
The publication of this book is in no degree an accident, but rather the partial fulfullment of a long-cherished plan to sometimes put in permanent and fitting form the annals of some of the more historic and romantic cities and towns of Southern California. This ambition dates back to the winter season of 1888-9, when the writer arrived in the "Golden State," became impressed with the transcendent richness of its past history and its abundant promise of future growth and history making. What might have been regarded, at the time, a fancy, or inspiration, has, with the rapid passing of two decades, developed into a vivid reality. Obscure hamlets have become prosperous cities; where then were open stock ranges and broad fields of grain, have sprung up marts of trade and commerce, environed by progressive and prosperous communities. Enough time has elapsed for these cities and communities to have acquired a history, still not enough for any considerable portion of that history to be lost. A few years hence, conditions in this latter respect will have entirely changed.
The region of country of which this story treats lies within the original confines of four Spanish-Mexican land grants bordering the bay of Santa Monica and has hitherto received scant attention from historical writers. When the good works of Hubert Howe Bancroft and Judge Theodore H. Hittell were written the wonderful developments of the past twenty years had not transpired and the work of more recent writers has been of so superficial a nature as not to be of special historical value.
The writing of history is not the thought or work of a day, but rather the diligent pursuance of a fixed and determined purpose. The writer of fiction may work from an inspiration based upon a fertile imagination; the newspaper writer is the chronicler of current events; the descriptive writer of travel pictures that which he then and there observes; but the historian makes a truthful record of the past, stating only that which has actually transpired. He indulges in no ideals, must be keen in discrimination, never self-opinionated or self-assertive, must be untiring in research, a faithful, patient, plodding gleaner of facts and an inherent lover of the truth. Lacking these virtues he is without his calling.
The brief history of California and Los Angeles county is herewith given as a preface to the local history in order that the reader may have a connected story from the date of the discovery of the country. The state chapters are, with the exception of some changes and additions, reprinted from my Century Annals of San Bernardino County, California (1904.) The sketches of each of the twenty-one Franciscan missions of Alta California are adapted from [p. iii] Missions and Landmarks, a meritorious booklet written and in 1903 published by Mrs. Armitage S.C. Forbes, a zealous student and authoritative writer upon California missions and kindred subjects.
The information utilized in the production of the history of Los Angeles county and the Santa Monica Bay Cities has been gleaned from numerous sources, prolific of what have been the works of Hubert Howe Bancroft, Theodore H. Hittell, History of Los Angeles County, Lewis Publishing Co., Chicago, 1890, Resources of California by the lamented Charles Nordhoff; Reminiscences of A Ranger, by Major Horace Bell; California Blue Books, old maps and numerous old legal documents. Acknowledgments are due Editor D.G. Holt for the loan of the complete files of his Santa Monica Outlook. Old files of the Los Angeles Times, the Los Angeles Herald and the Evening Express have all reflected light upon scenes and events of ealier days. Archives of the city of Santa Monica, of the city and the county of Los Angeles, have been freely drawn upon. Files of old legal documents and old court records have been a great aid in shaping and verifying the histories of the land grants.
Uniform courtesy and kindness have been accorded me by many people in my quest for historical data, for which I am under special and lasting obligations to Judge J.J. Carrillo, E.J. Vawter, Hon. John P. Jones, W.S. Vawter, R.R. Tanner, Esq., Judge Geo. H. Hutton, Abbot Kinney, Robert F. Jones, L.T. Fisher, Miss Jennie C. Vawter, Miss Emma Vawter, Dr. John A. Stanwood, Miss Elfie Mosse, Col, G. Wiley Wells, Mrs. E.K. Chapin, Rev. J.D.H. Browne, Mrs. Laura E. Hubbell, W.I. Hull, Mrs. May K. Rindge, J.B. Proctor, S,W. Odell, Rev. Stephen H. Taft, Mrs. Sarah L. Shively and W.B.B. Taylor. It affords me pleasure to here make due acknowledgment of the valuable literary service rendered me almost form the inception of this work by Miss Rose L. Ellerbe. Her mental training and already wide experience in the field of letters have eminently qualified her for historical labors and I deem it fortunate that, in this work, I have been able to command her splendid abilities.
The biographical matter with which the general historical chapters are supplemented will prove a valuable feature of this work. It permanently records so much of the personal experience of those who haver contributed to the development of this country and have borne an honorable part in the direction of its public affairs as to constitute a fairly comprehensive encyclopedia of local biographical references. Much careful labor has been bestowed upon the compiling of these sketches. The information has been gathered from published books, magazines, and newspapers, by personal interviews with the subjects thereof, and relatives of those who have passed away.
A somewhat rigid system of submitting these articles to persons from whom original information was obtained, has been pursued, for the purpose of assuring accuracy. In doing this, use was made of the U.S. mail. In some instances these sketches have not been returned to me corrected and in such cases errors may appear, for which I must disclaim responsibility. The printing of these [page iv] sketches had not in any instance been made contingent upon the payment of money or in any form, the support of my enterprise. Neither have they been written for the purpose of gratifying a desire of any person to appear conspicuously in print. I have studiously refrained from writing eulogies upon the lives of living people. Such forms of alleged biography invades the field of commercialism to such an extent as to render it worthless as history. The histories of churches and fraternal organizations is by no means as complete as I desire, because the necessary data was not obtainable. It would have been impossible to illustrate this volume so liberally only for the public spirit of people who have in many instances shared with me the burden of expense. The labor and money expended in the production of this book has been a secondary consideration, and to place in the hands of a reading public a reliable and dignified historical story has been paramount in the author's mind.
--Luther A. Ingersoll, Santa Monica, California, Dec. 1st, 1908
[See Missions]
[See Missions]
[p. 2, John C. Fremont, 1908, 1908a, 1908b]
[p. 3] Brief History of California
Chapter I. Discovery.
Fortuna Jiminez, the discoverer of Lower California, was chief pilot on one of the ships which Cortes, in 1533, fitted out to explore the northwest coast of Mexico. A mutiny broke out on the ship commanded by Becerro de Mendoza. He was killed and his friends forced to go on shore at Jalisco. The mutineers, commanded by Jiminez, sailed westerly away from the coast of the mainland. After several days of sailing out of sight of the main land, they discovered what they supposed to be an island and landed at what is now known as La Paz, in Lower California. There Jiminez and twenty of his followers were killed by the Indians; the few survivors of the ill-fated crew managed to navigate the vessel back to Jalisco, where they reported the discovery of an island rich in pearls.
[p. 4] Cortes, hearing the report and probably believing the island to be the California of the story, fitted out an expedition to colonize it. With three ships and a number of soldiers and settlers, he landed in May, 1535, at the place where Jiminez was killed, which he named Santa Cruz; but instead of an island peopled with women who lived after the manner of Amazons and whose arms and trappings were made of gold, he found a sterile country inhabited by the most abject and degraded of beings. Disaster after disaster fell upon the unfortunate colony. Some of the ships sent to bring supplies were wrecked and others driven out of their course. Some of the colonists died from starvation before the supplies reached them and others from over-eating afterwards. After two years of struggling against misfortune, Cortes abandoned the attempt and the wretched colonists were brought back to Mexico. Thus ended the first effort to colonize California.
Some time between 1535 and 1537 the name California was applied to the land still supposed to be an island; but whether Cortes applied it in the hope of encouraging his colonists or whether the country was so named in derision, is not known. The name was subsequently applied to all the land along the Pacific Coast northward to 42 degrees, the limit of the Spanish possessions.
The vast unexplored regions to the northward of that portion of Mexico which he had conquered had a fascination for Cortes. He dreamed of finding in them empires vaster and richer than those he had already subdued. For years he fitted out expeditions by sea and by land to explore this terra incognita; but failure after failure wrecked his hopes and impoverished his purse. The last of the parties was the one commanded by Francisco de Ulloa, who in 1539 sailed up the Gulf of California on the Sonora side to its head, and then down the inner coast of Lower California to the cape at its extremity, which he doubled and sailed thence northward to Cabo de Engano (Cape of Deceit.) Here the two vessels of the expedition, after being tossed and buffeted by head winds, parted company in a storm. The smaller returned to Santiago. Of the other which was directly under Ulloa's command, nothing is definitely known-nor of Ulloa's fate. The only thing accomplished by this voyage was to demonstrate that California was a peninsula, although even this fact was not fully accepted for two centuries after this. Cortes returned to Spain in 1540, where after vainly trying to obtain from the King some recognition of his services and some recompense for his outlay, he died-a disappointed and impoverished man.
The next voyage which had anything to do with the discovery and exploration of California was that of Hernando de Alarcon. With two ships he sailed from Acapulco, May 9, 1540, up the Gulf of California. His object was to cooperate with Coronado. The latter, with an army of 400 men, had marched from Culiscan, April 22, 1540, to discover and conquer the "Seven Cities of Cibola," which the romancing friar, Marcos de Niza, "led by the Holy Ghost" [p. 5] and blessed with a fertile imagination, claimed to have seen somewhere in the wilds of what is now Arizona. Alarcon, at the head of the gulf, discovered the mouth of a great river. Up this stream, which he named Buena Guia-now the Colorado-he claimed to have sailed eighty-five leagues. He was probably the first white man to set foot in the territory now included in the State of California.
While Coronado was still absent in search of the Seven Cities, and of Quivera, a country rich in gold, lying somewhere in the interior of the continent, the successor of Cortes entered into a compact with Pedro de Alvarado, Governor of Guatemala, who had a fleet of ships lying at anchor in the harbor of Natividad, Mexico to unite their forces in an extensive scheme of exploration and conquest. An insurrection broke out among the Indians of Jalisco and in trying to suppress it Alvarado was killed. The return of Coronado, dispelled the myths of Cibloa and Quivera and put an end, for the time, to further exploration of the interior regions to the north of Mexico.
On the death of Alvarado, his successor, Mendoza, placed five ships under the command of Ruy Lopez de Villalobas and sent them to the Islas de Poniente (Isles of the Setting Sun-now Phillippines) to establish trade. Two ships of the fleet, under the command of Juan Roderiquez Cabrillo, were sent to explore the northwest coast of the Pacific. He sailed from Natividad June 27, 1542; on August 30th they reached Cabo de Engano, the most northern point of Ulloa's exploration. Continuing his voyage along the coast, he discovered a number of bays and islands. On Sept. 23, 1542, Cabrillo entered a fine bay called by him San Miguel, now San Diego Bay. After three days further sailing he sighted the islands which he named San Salvador and Vitoria, after his vessels, now Catalina and San Clemente. From these islands he crossed to the mainland on Oct. 8th and entered a bay which he named Bahia de los Fumos (Bay of Smokes), now San Pedro Bay. After entering a bight, supposed to have been Santa Monica, he continued northward, passed through the Santa Barbara channel and discovered the islands of Santa Cruz, Santa Rosa and San Miguel. Going on up the coast, he found a long narrow point of land extending into the sea, which from its resemblance to a galley boat, he called Cabo de la Galeria, now Point Conception. November 17th he doubled Point of Pines and entered Monterey Bay, which he called Bahia de los Pinos (Bay of Pines.) Finding it impossible to land on account of the heavy seas, he proceeded northward until he reached 40 degrees, north latitude, as he estimated. On account of cold weather and storms he turned back and ran down to San Miguel, where he decided to winter. Here, from the effects of a fall, he died Jan. 3, 1543, and was buried on the island. His companions renamed the island Juan Roderiguez, after their brave commander; but he did not retain even this small honor. The discoverer of California sleeps in an unknown grave.
[p. 6] The command devolved on the chief pilot, Bartolome Ferrelo, who prosecuted the voyage with a courage and daring equal to that shown by Cabrillo. On Feb. 28th he discovered a point of land which he named Cape Mendocino in honor of his Viceroy. Passing this cape he encountered a furious storm, which drove him violently to the northeast and greatly endangered his ships. On March 1st the fogs lifted and he saw Cape Blanco in the southern part of what is now Oregon. The weather continuing stormy and the cold increasing, Ferrelo was compelled to turn back. Off the coast of San Clemente the ships were driven apart and did not come together again until they reached the Cerros Islands. In sore distress for provisions they arrived at Natividad, April 18, 1543.
The next navigator who visited California was Sir Francis Drake, an Englishman. He was not so much seeking new lands as trying to find a way of escape from capture by the Spanish. Francis Drake, the sea-king of Devon and one of the bravest of men, sailed from Plymouth Dec. 13, 1577, in command of a fleet of five small vessels on a privateering expedition against the Spanish settlements of the Pacific Coast. When he sailed out of the Straits of Magellan into the South Sea, he had but one ship left, all the others had been lost or had turned back. With this small vessel he began a career of plundering among the Spanish settlements that for boldness, daring and success has had no equal in the world's history. The quaint chronicler of the voyage sums up the proceeds of his raids at "eight hundred and sixty-five thousand pesos of silver, a hundred thousand pounds of gold and other things of great worth," Plundering as he moved, he reached the port of Guatulco on the coast of Oaxaca. Surfeited with spoils and with his ship laden to her fullest capacity, it became a necessity for him to find a new way home. In the language of the chronicler, "He thought it was not good to return by the straits, lest the Spaniards should attend for him in great numbers." So he sailed away to the northward to find the Straits of Anian, which were supposed to connect the North Pacific with the Atlantic. For two hundred years after the discovery of America, navigators searched for that mythical passage. Drake, keeping well out to sea, sailed northward for two months. The cold, the head winds and the leaky condition of his craft compelled him to turn back and he sailed down the coast until he found a safe harbor under the lee of a promontory, now Point Reyes. Here he repaired his ship, took formal possession of the country in the name of his sovereign, Queen Elizabeth, and named it New Albion, from a fancied resemblance to his homeland. He had his chaplain, Parson Fletcher, preach a sermon to the natives; this did not greatly impress them, we are told, but they took delight in the psalm singing. After a stay of thirty-six days, on July 23rd, 1579, Drake sailed for England and after nearly three years of absence, during which he had circumnavigated the globe, he reached home safely and was knighted by Elizabeth.
[p. 7] Sixty years passed after Cabrillo's voyage before another Spanish explorer visited California. The chief object of Sebastian Viscaino's voyage was to find a harbor of refuge for the Phillippine galleons. These vessels on their return voyage sailed northward until they struck the Japan current, which they followed across the ocean until they reached the vicinity of Cape Mendocino, then sailed along the coast to Acapulco. Viscaino started from Acapulco May 5, 1602, with three ships and 160 men. Following substantially the course that Cabrillo had taken, he anchored in Cabrillo's Bay of San Miguel, which he called San Diego, in honor of his flagship. He remained there ten days, then proceeded up the coast and on the 26th anchored in a bay which he called Ensenada de San Andreas, now San Pedro. He visited Cabrillo's San Salvador, to which he gave the present name of Santa Catalina and changed the name of Vitoria to San Clemente. He gave the name of Santa Barbara to that channel and visited the channel islands. He saw many towns on the mainland and the natives came off in their canoes and visited the vessels. On Dec. 16th Viscaino entered Monterey Bay, as he named it in honor of the Viceroy who had fitted out the expedition. The scurvy had broken out on ship and sixteen men were already dead. The San Tomás was sent back to Acapulco with the sick; with his two remaining vessels Viscaino continued his voyage northward, reaching Cape Blanco. But at this point he, too, was compelled to turn backward. The scurvy had made fearful inroads on his crews and after eleven months' absence, Viscaino reached Mazlatan, having lost nearly half of his crew. He wrote the King a glowing account of the Bay of Monterey and the surrounding country, which he pictured as almost a terrestial paradise. His object was to induce the King to establish a settlement on Monterey Bay. In this he was doomed to disappointment; delay followed delay until hope vanished. Finally, in 1606, orders came from Philip III to the Viceroy to fit out immediately an expedition for the occupation and settlement of Monterey, of which Viscaino was to be the commander. In the midst of his preparation for carrying out the dearest object of his life, Viscaino died and the expedition was abandoned. Had it not been for the untimely death of this explorer, a colony would have been planted upon the Pacific coast of California, a year before the first settlement was made on the Atlantic coast of North America.
Two hundred and twenty-seven years had passed since the ships of Cabrillo had first cut the waters that lap the shores of Alta California and yet through all these years the interior of the vast country whose seacoast he had visited remained unknown. For more than two centuries the Manila galleons had sailed down the coast on their return voyage from the islands; yet after the death of Viscaino no other attempt had been made to find a refuge on the California coast for the storm tossed and scurvy afflicted mariners of the Phillippine trade.
[p. 8] Chapter II. Colonization
The Jesuits began their work among the degraded inhabitants of Lower California in 1697. Under their devoted leaders, Salvatierra, Kino, Ugarte, Piccolo, and their successors, they had founded sixteen missions upon the peninsula. Father Kino, besides his missionary labors, had made, between 1697 and 1702, explorations around the head of the Gulf of California and up the Colorado to the mouth of the Gila, which had clearly demonstrated that the peninsula was a part of the mainland instead of an island as at first believed. Father Kino formed the design of establishing a chain of missions around the head of the gulf and down the inner coast to Cape San Lucas; but did not live to complete his ambitious project. The Jesuit missions of Baja California never grew rich in flocks and herds. The country was barren and the few fertile valleys around the missions gave the padres and neophytes, at best, but a frugal return for their labors.
For years there had been growing up in Spain a strong hostility to the Jesuits which finally resulted in the issuance of a decree by Carlos III, in 1767, banishing the order from that country and from its American possessions. Without previous warning, the monks in Lower California were compelled to abandon their missions and were hurried from the country. At the head of the Franciscan order, to whom the abandoned missions were turned over, came Father Junipero Serra, a man of indomitable will and energy. Don José Galvez, visitador-general of New Spain, had been sent to the peninsula to regulate affairs-both secular and ecclesiastical, which had been thrown into disorder by the sudden explusion of the Jesuits. He had also received orders to advance the scheme for the occupation of San Diego and Monterey harbors and the colonization of "Nueva California." Galvez, as soon as he had somewhat systematized matters on the peninsula, set vigorously to work to further the project of occupying the northern territory. Father Serra entered heartily into his plans and church and state worked together harmoniously.
Galvez decided to fit out four expeditions-two by sea and two by land. These were to start at different dates, but were all to unite at San Diego Bay and after occupying that territory, pass on to the harbor of Monterey. On Jan, 9, 1769, the San Carlos sailed from La Paz with sixty-five persons on board, twenty-five of whom were soldiers under Lieutenant Fages. She carried supplies for eight months. On the 15th of February, the San Antonio sailed from Cape S. Lucas, with two friars and a few mechanics on board. The first land expedition [p. 9] started from Velicata, the most northern settlement in Lower California, March 24th. It was commanded by Rivera y Moncada and consisted of twenty-five soldiers, forty-two natives, with Padres Crespi and Cañizares. The last expedition, which was under the immediate command of Gaspar de Portala[sic], Governor of the Californias, left Velicata May 15th. It consisted of ten soldiers, with a band of Lower Californians, and was accompanied by Father Serra.
The San Antonio, although the last to sail, was the first to arrive at its destination, casting anchor in San Diego Bay, April 11, 1769. The San Carlos, after a most disastrous voyage, drifted into the bay on April 29th. The crew was prostrated with scurvy and it was with difficulty that a boat was manned to go ashore. The sick were landed, but when the scourge had run its course, few were left. Moncada's land expedition, after an uneventful march, reached San Diego May 14th. On the first day of July Portala's command arrived and the four divisions, aggregating 126 persons who were expected to remain in the country, were united. The ravages of scurvy had so depleted the crews of the two vessels that only enough men remained to man one vessel. The San Antonio was sent back to San Blas for supplies and another crew for the San Carlos. A third vessel, the San José, had been fitted out by Galvez and loaded with supplies for the missionaries; but she was never heard from after the day of sailing.
On July 16th, Father Serra formally founded the first mission in Nueva California, which was dedicated to San Diego de Alcalá-St. James of Alcalá-a Franciscan friar who died in 1463 and was canonized in 1588. On July 14th Governor Portalá, with Padres Crespi and Gomez and a force made up of soldiers and Indians of Lower California, numbering in all sixty-five persons, set out from San Diego to go overland to Monterey Bay and there found the intended mission and settlement. The route of the expedition was mainly along the coast, with an occasional divergence inland. On August 2nd they camped on the future site of Los Angeles. Along the coast of Santa Barbara channel they found populous Indian villages and were everywhere welcomed by the natives of the country. The explorers passed by Monterey Bay without recognizing it from the description of Viscaino, and traveled along the coast to the north. On Nov. 2nd some of the hunters of the party climbed a hill and saw an "arm of the sea." This was the body of water we now know as San Francisco Bay. Their provisions were exhausted and many were sick. In consequence it was decided to turn back and the party reached San Diego again in January, 1770. Portalá's[sic] expedition had failed in its object to found a mission on the bay of Monterey, but it had accomplished a far greater feat-it had discovered San Francisco Bay.
In April, 1770, Portalá again set out for Monterey, with a force of twenty -five soldiers and natives. At the same time Father Serra sailed on the San Antonio for the bay. On June 3, 1770, the mission San Carlos Borreméo de Monterey was formally established on the beach, with solemn ceremonies, ac- [p. 10] companied by the ringing of bells and the crack of musketry and roar of cannon. Father Serra conducted the services and Governor Portalá took possession of the country in the name of the King of Spain, Carlos III. A presidio or fort of palisades was erected and a few huts built. Portalá, having formed the nucleus of a settlement, turned over the command of the territory to Fages and sailed to Lower California on the San Antonio. This was the end of his term as Governor.
For the protection of the missions and to prevent foreigners from entering California, military posts, called presidios, were established at San Diego, Monterey, Santa Barbara and San Francisco. These enclosures were in the form of a square and were surrounded by adobe walls ten or twelve feet high. Within were the officers' quarters, the barracks for the soldiers, a guard house, chapel, granaries, and storehouses. A military force, usually consisting of one company, was stationed at each post under the commmand of a colonel or lieutenant. The largest force was kept at Monterey, the capital of the territory. The Governor, or commadante-general who, under Spanish rule was always an army officer, was commander-in-chief of the troops in the territory. The principal service of the soldiers was to keep in check the neophytes, to protect the missions from the incursions of the "gentiles," as the wild Indians were known, and to capture neophytes who had escaped to their unconverted relatives.
The mission fathers were opposed to the colonization of the country by white people. They well knew that the bringing of a superior race of people into contact with the lower would result in the demoralization of the inferior race. As rapidly as they could found missions, they arrogated to themselves all the choice lands within the vicinity of each establishment. A settler could not obtain a grant of land from the public domain if the padres of the nearest mission opposed the action. The difficulty of obtaining supplies from Mexico for the soliders of the presidios, necessitated the founding of agricultural colonies. Previous to 1776 the Governor of "Las Californias" as the country from Cape San Lucas to the most northern point of the Spanish possessions was known, resided at Loreto, in Lower California. In that year the territory was divided into two districts and a governor appointed for each. Felipe de Neve was made Governor of Nueva California, of which Monterey was designated as the capital, and Rivera y Moncada was appointed Governor of Lower California to reside at Loreto.
Hitherto all expeditions to Nueva California had come either by the coast route, up the peninsula or by sea. In 1774 Captain Juan Bautista de Anza, commander of the Tubac presidio of Sonora, was ordered to explore a route by way of the Gila and Colorado rivers overland to Monterey. With a party of [p. 11] thirty-four men, he made the jornada, crossing the desert, entering the San Bernardino Valley through the San Gorgonio Pass and reaching San Gabriel. On his return to Sonora, he recruited a second expedition composed of soldiers, settlers and their families-in all over three hundred persons, who were designed to found a mission and a presidio on San Francisco Bay. After a long and toilsome journey this party reached California in 1776. On the 17th of September, 1776, the presidio of San Francisco was formally established and on October 9th the mission, christened for the founder of the Franciscan order, was founded.
Governor de Neve, on his journey overland in 1777 from Loreto to Monterey, was instructed to examine the country from San Diego northward and select locations for agricultural settlements. He chose two colony sites, one on which he had given the name of "Nuestra Señora de Los Angeles," and the other on the Rio de Guadalupe in the northern section of the territory. Here, Nov. 29, 1777, Governor de Neve founded the Pueblo de San José. The colonists were nine soldiers from the presidios of Monterey and San Francisco and five settlers of Anza's expedition. These, with their families, made a total of sixty-six. The site of the pueblo was about a mile north of the present city of San José. Each settler was given a tract of irrigable land, a soldier's rations and ten dollars per month. Each head of a family received a yoke of oxen, two horses, two cows, a mule, two sheep and two goats, a few farming implements and seed for the first sowing. The colonists were to reimburse the royal treasury for all the articles furnished them except their rations and monthly pay, the payments to be made in installments from the products of their industry.
The Spanish government had an elaborate code of laws governing the establishment and management of pueblos. These were applied with small modifications to all new pueblos, whatever their location and conditions. Each pueblo must contain four square leagues of land, which was divided into planting fields, allotted to the colonists; lands retained by the municipality for renting; a common pasture for the use of all, and a portion of land reserved for the state, used for raising revenues. Wood and water were communal property. The pueblo was governed by a semi-civil, semi-military official known as the comisionado. There was also an alcalde, who was a mayor and petty judge. A guard of soldiers were kept at the guard house, partly for protection against the Indians and partly to preserve the peace in the pueblo.
In 1779 Rivera y Moncada, the Governor of Lower California, was instructed to recruit in Sonora and Sinaloa settlers for the founding of a pueblo on the Rio Porciuncula and soldiers for the founding of a presidio and mission on the Santa Barbara channel. The settlers were to receive each $106.50 for two years and $60 for the next three years, the payment to be in clothing and other necessary articles at cost price; also live stock, farming implements and seeds. These [p. 12] liberal offers secured but few recruits and those of poor quality. Two of these deserted before the company left Sonora and one was left behind at Loreto when, in April, 1781, the expedition began to march up the peninsula. The colonists under command of Lieut. Zuniga arrived at San Gabriel, August 18th, where they remained until Sept. 4th. The eleven settlers and their families-forty-four persons in all, escorted by Gov. de Neve and a small guard of soldiers and accompanied by the priests of San Gabriel Mission, on Sept. 4, 1781, proceeded to the site previously selected for the pueblo. This was on the right bank of the Rio Porciuncula near the spot where Portalá's explorers had celebrated the feast of Nuesta Señora de Los Angeles de Porciuncula, from which circumstances was derived the name of the pueblo and the river. A plaza, seventy-five by one hundred varas was laid off on the mesa above the river as the center of the settlement. A mass was said by the priests of the mission, a procession was formed and marched around the plaza, the soldiers bearing the imperial standard of Spain and the women the image of "Our Lady of the Angels." The priests blessed the plaza and the house lots. The service over, the Governor and his escort took their departure and the colonists were left to work out their destiny. Another pueblo called Branciforte was founded in 1797 near Santa Cruz, but never prospered. The settlers were discharged soldiers, unused to labor and averse to acquiring industrious habits.
A few grants of land were made to private citizens, but substantially, during the Spanish era, all the land outside of the pueblos used for grazing or for cultivation was held by the missions. The commerce of California at this period was limited to the ships of the missions which usually came twice a year from San Blas with supplies for the missions and presidios and took away the few commercial products of the country, such as otter skins, hides and tallow of cattle. About 1800 the American smugglers began to come to the coast. The vessels engaged in this trade were principally from Boston and were fast sailing craft. They exchanged Yankee notions for otter skins. The authorities tried to suppress this illicit traffic, but were not often successful, as the vessels were heavily armed and when not able to escape the revenue officers, by speed or strategem, were not averse to fighting their way out.
Of the long and bloody struggle for Mexican independence, beginning with the insurrection led by the patriot priest, Hidalgo, in 1810, and continuing under various leaders for eleven years, but little was known in California. The men who filled the office of territorial governor during the years of the fratricidal struggle-Arrilliga, Argüella and Sola, were royalists and so were the mission padres, nearly all of whom were Spanish born. The soldiers and the common people knew but little about what was going on in the world beyond and cared less.
The one event that disturbed the placidity of life during the closing years [p. 13] of the Spanish rule was the appearance on the coast of Bouchard, the privateer, with two frigates heavily armed. Bouchard was a Frenchman cruising under letters of Marque from the insurgent government of Buenos Ayres, against the Spanish. He entered the harbor of Monterey, Nov. 21, 1818, probably to obtain supplies, but being coldly received, he fired upon the fort. The Californians made a brave resistance, but were finally overpowered. Bouchard sacked and burned the town. He next appeared at Ortega's Rancho, where he burned the buildings. Here the Californians captured three prisoners, who were exchanged next day when Bouchard anchored off Santa Barbara for one Californian whom the insurgents had captured at Monterey. Bouchard next visited San Juan Capistrano, where his "pirates" drank the padres' wine, then he took his departure from California. Four of Bouchard's men were left and became permanent residents-Joseph Chapman, an American, and Fisher, a negro, who were captured at Monterey; and John Ross, a Scotchman, and José Pascual, a negro, who deserted at San Juan. Chapman was the first American resident of Southern California. He married Guadalupe Ortega, a daughter of the owner of the Refugio Rancho which was plundered by the insurgents, and settled at the mission San Gabriel. He build there the first flour mill erected in California.
The war of Mexican Independence caused hard times in California. The soldiers received no pay and the mission supply ships came at long intervals. Money was almost an unknown quantity. There were products to sell, but no one to sell them to except an occasional smuggler, or a tallow ship from Peru.
[p. 14] Chapter III The Mission Establishments
It was not the intention of the Spanish government that the mission establishments should continue permanently as missions. According to the law, at the end of ten years from its founding each mission was to be converted into a municipal organization, known as a pueblo, or town; and the property of the mission, both personal and real, was to be sub-divided among the neophytes of the establishment. But the training which the natives received did not fit them for self-government. They were forced to labor and were instructed in many branches of industry, as well as in the religious ceremonials; but they received no intellectual training and they made little progress toward self-control. The padres persistently urged that the neophytes were incompetent to use and manage property, and during the time that California was subject to Spain no attempt was made to carry out the law and secularize the missions.
In form, the different missions resembled one another. Col. J.J. Warner, thus describes the general form: "A large pile of buildings in the form of a quadrangle, composed partly of burnt brick, but chiefly of sun-dried ones, was erected around a spacious court. A large and capacious church, usually occupying one corner of the quadrangle, was a conspicuous part of the pile. In these buildings, which were covered with red tile, was the habitation of the friars, rooms for guests and for the major-domos and their families, hospital wards, storehouses and granaries."
A guard of four or five soldiers was kept at each mission to control the neophytes. Each establishment held possession of large tracts of land, continguous to its buildings. These were divided into ranches, over which roamed large herds and flocks under the charge of Indian vaqueros. The neophytes for the most part were docile and easily managed, and some of the brighter ones were taught mechanical trades and became fairly good blacksmiths, weavers, tanners, shoemakers, saddlers, brick-makers, etc. They certainly accomplished a large amount of labor under the padres and proved themselves capable, with proper supervision, of supporting themselves-and producing a large surplus for the benefit of the church.
The history and present condition of each mission is here presented.
[ Junipero Serra, p. 15, 1908d]
[p.15] Junipero Serra. [1713-1784].
"The first Apostle of California," Father Junipero Serra, was a humble friar of the Franciscan order when, in 1767, he was appointed presidente general of the missions of the Californias, in charge of the missions of Lower California, and with orders to establish new missions in Upper California. Filled with zeal for the salvation of souls, he prepared with great rejoicing and with excellent good sense, as well, to enter new territory. For sixteen years he labored incessantaly, travelling up and down the coast and visiting the City of Mexico, although he was afflicted with an incurable disease and so lame that he could not move without suffering. He founded nine missions before his death, at which five thousand natives had been baptized.
Less than a year before he died, he made his last journey from San Diego to Monterey, visiting each of the missions, journeying on foot, sleeping on the ground, although he was so ill that no one believed he would live to complete the trip. He was most ascetic in his habits, never eating meat; sleeping on rough boards, and spending most of the night in prayer; Palou relates that four days before his death an old Indian woman came to visit the holy father and with his own hand he gave her a blanket. After his death they found that it was half of his own blanket that he had given.
Father Serra was born on the island of Majorca in 1713; he died at San Carlos Mission, August 29, 1784, and was buried in the church to which he had given so much of his love and thought.
To Junipero Serra and his noble band of assistants California owes the existence of her mission ruins; but she also owes to these simple, hard-working friars, the beginnings of her industries, the nomenclature of her geography, the distinctiveness of her architecture and the civilization of her savages.
The Mission San Diego de Alcala (Saint James of Alcala), was founded July 16, 1769, by Father Junipero Serra, on an eminence overlooking the Bay of San Diego. A temporary altar was erected beneath the branches of a tree from which bells were swung and loudly rung. Water was blessed, the cross raised, high mass was sung by Father Junipero. The services were attended by the officers and soldiers from the ships and the land forces; the royal standard was unfurled and the country was formally occupied in the name of Carlos III. [p. 16] Several huts were erected, one of which was used as a chapel. The Indians at no time very friendly, became hostile, and on August 15, 1769, made an attack upon the mission, but were repulsed, and a stockade was immediately erected aroud the camp.
[p. 16 San Diego de Alcala, 1908d]
In 1771 Fathers Luis Jayme and Francisco Dumetz came from Mexico and were placed in charge of the mission. In 1774 the location was changed to a point about seven miles up the Valley of the San Diego river. A wooden church was constructed, 18 x 57 feet in size, roofed with tules, three small adobe buildings used for a store, a blacksmith shop and a dwelling. In 1775 new buildings were erected and a well dug. A ferocious attack was made upon the settlement by the Indians on the night of November 4th, 1775, all the buildings being destroyed and Father Jayme murdered. His body was found naked with twenty arrow wounds in the breast. Jose Manual Arroyo, the blacksmith, and the carpenter Ursullino were also killed. All three were buried in the chapel at the Presidio. Fathers de la Peña and Fuster resumed the mission work, holding services at the Presidio. A new church, strengthened with heavy pine timbers and otherwise improved was completed in 1780. A report on the condition of San Diego Mission given by Father Lasuen in 1783, is as follows: "A church, 90 x 17 x 17; a granary, 75 x 16 1/2 feet; a store-house; a house for sick men; sheds for wood and oxen; two horses for the fathers; a larder; a guests' room and a kitchen." All were of adobe and with the soldiers' barracks these buildings formed three sides of a quadrangle of 165 feet. The fourth side consisted of an adobe wall fifteen feet high. There was a vat for use in tanning hides, two adobe corrals for sheep and one for cows. These were outside the regular mission enclosure. The cabins of the neophytes were of wood and grass. At this time there wer seven hundred and forty neophytes, under missionary care.
In 1793, a substantial granary of adobe, 96 x 24 feet, was built, and in 1795, the vineyard was surrounded with an adobe wall five hundred yards in length. This year saw also the commencement of an extensive system of irrigating ditches, remains of which can still be seen and constitute a valuable object lesson in ditch construction. About three miles of San Diego river was dammed back with a solid stone dam thirteen feet in thickness and coated with cement that [p. 17] became as solid as rock and remains so to this day. In the center of this dam was a gateway from which a stream of water, 12 x 24 inches, was carried through an aquaduct of tile and resting on a base of cobblestones and cement. This aquaduct for the major portion of the way was laid along the sides of a precipitous gorge and frequently crossed gulches from 15 to 20 feet wide, and as many feet deep.
On May 25th, 1803, an earthquake occurred which damaged the church. In 1804, a new church was begun. It was completed and dedicated November 12th, 1813. It is the ruins of this building that we see today. The remains of Fathers Jayme, Figuer and Mariner were transferred from their old resting place and buried in one grave, though in separate coffins, between the altars of the church, Father Jayme resting nearest the altar of the Blessed Virgin.
From the time of the establishment of San Diego in 1769 to 1834, the date of its secularization, there were 6638 persons baptized, 1879 marriages performed and 4428 burials. In 1831, the mission owned 8822 head of cattle, 1192 horses and 16,661 head of sheep. There were 1506 Indians on the roll of the mission January 6th, 1846, when an inventory of the mission property was taken. In June of the same year the mission lands were sold to Santiago Argüello for past services to the United States government. His title was not, however, sustained and in accordance with a decision of the United States Land Commissioners, in 1856, based on the old Spanish law, that divided church property into two classes, sacred and ecclesiastical, and whereby sacred property could not be sold, San Diego Mission was returned to the church. "Sacred property" is defined as that which has been formally consecrated to God, such as churches, church buildings, vessels and vestments. The priests' houses and their gardens were thus included. According to this decision all church property that had been sold by Governor Pio Pico reverted to the church while the ecclesiastic or mission lands were government property.
San Diego Mission has been in part restored by the Auxiliary to the Landmarks Club. The ruins of the old dam, the irrigating system and garden walls are to be seen. Many of the original trees of the olive orchard are still standing and productive. The old olive press is also there. Down at the old town of San Diego may be seen the ruins of the first Presidio buildings, relics of the century past. Two old mission bells hung suspended from a beam outside of one of the original buildings.
[p. 17] San Carlos Borremeo de Monterey
Mission San Carlos Borremeo de Monterey was founded June 3rd, 1770, on the inner shore of Monterey Bay, where the city of Monterey now stands, [p. 18] the exact location being marked with the statue of Junipero Serra, erected by the late Mrs. Jane Lathrop Stanford. Near the bay shore stands a cross, indicating the landing place of Fathers Serra and Crespi and near by is the old oak tree upon a branch of which they hung the bell, and under which the christening services were held. The Indians of that locality were more timorous than those of the South, and progress in gaining their confidence was somewhat slow, but within about three years, one hundred and seventy-five had been gathered into the church. The situation and surroundings were not satisfactory, however, and a few months later the mission was removed about five miles to the mouth of El Carmel river, on the beautiful Bay of Carmel., and while the mission was thereafter known San Carlos el Carmello, it officially retained its original title.
[p. 18 San Carlos Borremeo de Monterey, 1908d]
At this new mission Fathers Serra and Crespi began the study of the Indian language. Rev. Father Juan Crespi [1722-1783] was a native of Spain, being sixty-one years of age at the time of his decease, January 1st, 1783. He was buried near the main altar. It was here that Serra two years later passed away after a lingering illness, and his remains were laid beside those of Father Crespi.
It was not until July 7th, 1793, that the first stone of the new church was laid. It was built of soft, straw-colored stone, quarried near by, laid in lime made from sea-shells, gathered along the sea-beach, the roof being of red tiles. The church was dedicated in 1797, and the remains of the building, restored through the efforts of the Rev. Father Cassanova, pastor of Monterey, are to be seen today. On July 3rd, 1882, Father Cassanova opened the tombs. This was evidently done to reassure the world of the recorded fact that the sacred remains of those true disciples of Christ and pioneers of California, founders of the Missions, were there. At the services, the following entries from the parish records were read:
"Rev. Fr. Juan Crespi; born in Spain; died Jan. 1st, A.D. 1782, 61 years old, buried near the main altar, gospel side." "Rev. Fr. Junipero Serra, D.D., President of all the Missions; born in Majorca, Spain; died on the 28th of August, A.D. 1784, at the age of 71 years, buried in the Sancturary, fronting the altar of Our Lady of Seven Dolores, on the gospel side." "Rev. Fr. Julian Lopez, born in Spain; died here on the 15th of July, A.D. 1797, aged 35 years; buried in the Sanctuary, on the gospel side, in the tomb near the wall on the [p. 19] left." "Rev. Fr. Fransisco Lasuen, Vic. for Second President of the Missions, born in Spain, died here, and is buried in the Sanctuary, on the gospel side, in a stone tomb, near the main altar, June 28th, 1803."
The heavy stone slabs having been removed before the ceremony began, the coffin in each tomb was left visible. The lids of each was then raised and the people then viewed the remains of which only the clothing and the skeletons were seen. The tombs were then covered as before with the stone slabs. The coffins were of unplaned redwood boards, and all but that of Father Lasuen in a good state of preservation.
When the restoration of the old mission church was commenced in 1882, the tile roof had fallen in, the walls crumbled, and grass had grown upon the tiled floor. The resting place of the founder of the California missions was completely obliterated.
Throujgh the untiring efforts of Father Cassanova, and his band of sympathizers, the tomb of Serra and his beloved co-worker, Father Crespi, are in fairly good repair. Services are held here once a month by the resident priest of Monterey, and upon each occasion the old mission bell is rung.
[p. 19 San Antonio de Padua, 1908d]
The Mission San Antonio de Padua (Saint Anthony of Padua), now a mass of ruins, was founded by Father Junipero Serra, July 14, 1771, under most auspicious circumstances. The ringing of bells attracted an Indian, and instead of hiding in fear, he remained to witness the ceremony of dedication, and later brought his companions in large numbers to meet the missionaries.
The mission is located in a beautiful oak-studded glen, in the Santa Lucia Mountains, and near the Salinas River, in Monterey County. Father Serra named the valley Los Robles. The present ruins are those of the second church, which was built in the year 1809 or 1810, and was extended by adobe structures several times. The Indians assisted Fathers Buenaventurra, Sitjar and Miguel Pieras in erecting the first temporary structure, which was unusual.
San Antonio became famous for its piety, prosperity and its splendid horses. In 1805 it had a population of 1261 neophytes. An inventory of property made in 1835, when the mission was secularized, showed the valuation of buildings and vineyards to be $90,000.00, but in 1845 it was invoiced at only [p. 20] $8,000.00, and the membership had declined to ten men and five women. Mrs. Forbes writes in 1904 that, "At present the roof of the mission building has fallen in and the last room is ready to collapse. The relics have all been stolen or removed to other places, with the exception of one iron kettle used by the Fathers in cooking soup for the Indians. Only one family of the original Indians of the Valley remains, and they live many miles from the mission. The tree upon which Father Serra hung the bell when the first chapel was founded still stands beside the road, leading up to the mission. Near by the mission flows Mission creek, a branch of the San Antonio river. In mission days the Padres constructed a dam across the river, and its water was diverted to irrigate mission lands. At one time San Antonio rivalled San Juan Capistrano, San Luis Rey and Santa Barbara in prosperity and importance. The buildings were extensive. Long cloisters, arches and broken walls and tiled roofs now remain to tell the story of architectural grandeur."
[p. 20] San Gabriel Arcangel, p. 20
The mission San Gabriel Archangel was founded September 8th, 1771, by Fathers Angel Somera and Pedro Benito Cambon. The first mission site was located five miles south of the present mission on the banks of the San Gabriel (then San Miguel) river. The first chapel was of logs cut to length, the desired height of the building, then split in two and set upright in a trench or ditch. The roof was made of tules and adobe mud. The dwelling of the priests and attendents were enclosed with a stockade of similar construction which, however, was soon replaced with an adobe wall. Not a vestige of the first mission of San Gabriel remains, and it is even quite uncertain as to its exact location.
By reason of danger from floods, from the river's overflow, low-land frosts and poor drainage, the mission was moved to its present site, then as now, a most charming location, in the midst of a belt of live oak, on warm and responsive soil. The date of removal to the new site is unknown, but it must have been about 1775, since Junipero Serra in his second annual report of 1774 indicates his intention to move San Gabriel Mission a short distance and states that for that reason no permanent improvements had been made on the old site.
The stone church which is now the admiration of visitors was half finished in 1794, and had not been completed in 1800. It was first built with an arched roof, in which cracks soon appeared. When these were repaired an earthquake reopened them. The arched roof was then removed and a new roof of timbers and tiles substituted in 1804. The valley was fertile and Indians were numerous but were seemingly slow to embrace the religion of the Friars, since [p. 21] only seventy-three baptisms were recorded the first two years. Up to the year 1800, there were, however, 1078 neophytes attached to the mission. There had been 1953 baptisms, 869 burials and 396 marriages performed. Once established on the new mission site affairs seemed to take on new life and enterprise and set the pace for those missions already established and those to be.
[p. 21 San Gabriel Arcangel, 1908d]
In 1806 Jose Marie Zalvidea, a man of great energy and executive ability, was transferred from San Fernando to San Gabriel. According to Hugo Reid:
"He it was, who planted the large vineyards, intersected with fine walks, shaded fruit trees of every description, and rendered still more lovely by shrubs interspersed between; who laid out the orange garden, fruit and olive orchards; built the mill and dam; made fences of tunas (cactus) round the fields; made hedges of rose bushes; planted trees in the mission square, with a flower garden and hour-dial in the center; brought water from long distance, etc. He also remodeled the existent system of government. Every article must henceforth be in place, and every man at his station. Evverything under him was organized and that organization kept up with a lash! The people were now divided into classes and vocations. These included vaqueros, soapmakers, tanners, shoemakers, carpenters, blacksmiths, bakers, cooks, general servants, pages, fishermen, agriculturists, brick and tile makers, musicians, singers, tallow melters, vigñerons, carters, cartmakers, store and key-keepers, deer hunters, deer and sheep-skin dressers, masons, plasterers, people of all work-everything but coopers, these were foreign; all the rest were native Indians.
"Large soap works were erected, tanning yards established, tallow works, bakery, cooper, blacksmith, carpenter and other shops. Large spinning rooms, where might be seen fifty or sixty women turning their spindles merrily, and looms for weaving wool, flax and cotton. Then large store rooms were allotted to the various articles, which were kept separate. For instance, wheat, barley, peas, beans, lentels, chick, peas, butter and cheese, soap, candles, wood, leather, flour, lime, salt, horse-hair, wine and spirits, fruit stores, etc., etc. Sugar-cane, flax and hemp were added to the other articles cultivated, but cotton wool was imported.
"At an early period in the history of San Gabriel, a water-power mill, for grinding wheat, was constructed and put in operation in front of and near the [p. 22] mission building. At a later period, a new grist mill was built by the mission, and placed about two miles west of the mission proper. This was also operated by water-power. The building in which was placed the mill is still standing and is known as El Molino, the Spanish words for "The Mill." It is now the property of H.E. Huntington. A water-power saw-mill was also built by this mission, and was located near the last-mentioned grist-mill. These were the only mills made or used in California, either for grinding or sawing, in which water was the motive power, or in which a wheel was used, for more than half a century after the founding of the first mission. In these two grist-mills the revolving mill stone was upon the upper end of the vertical shaft, and the water-wheel upon the lower end, so that the revolution of the stone was no more frequent than that of the water-wheel. They did no grinding or separating of the flour in these mills. This process, if done at all, was done with hand sieves."
"The principal ranchos belonging at that time to San Gabriel were San Pasqual, Santa Anita, Azusa, San Francisquito, Cucamonga, San Antonio, San Gorgonio, Yucaipa, Jurupa, Guapa, Rincon, Chino, San Jose, Ybarras, Puente, Mission Vieja, Serranos, Rosa Castillo, Coyotes, Jaboneria, Las Bolsas, Alamitos and Serritos.
"The principal head (Major-domo) commanded and superintended over all. Claudio Lopez was the famed one during Padre Zalvidea's administration, and although only executing the priest's plans, in the minds of the people he is the real hero. Ask any one who made this, or who did that, and the answer on all sides is the same: 'El difunto Claudio!' Great credit is due him for carrying out without flogging the numerous works intrusted to him. There were a great many other major-domos under him for all kinds of work, from tending of horses down to those of superintending crops, and in charge of vineyards and gardens.
"Indian alcaldes were appointed annually by the padre, and chosen from among the laziest in the community, he being of the opinion that they took more pleasure in making the others work than would industrious ones, and from my own observation this is correct. They carried a wand to denote their authority, and an immense scourge of rawhide about ten feet in length, plaited to the size of an ordinary man's wrist. They did a great deal of chastisement.
"The unmarried women and girls were kept as nuns, under the supervision of an abbess, who slept with them in a large room. Their occupations: sometimes they served, at others they cleaned weeds from out of the gardens with hoes, worked at ditches or gathered in the crops. The best looking youths were kept as pages to attend at the tables and those of most musical talent wre reserved for church service.
"The number of hogs were great. They were principally used for making soap. (The Indians, with a few exceptions, refused to eat pork.) Near the [p. 23] mission at San Francisquito (San Fernando Mission) were kept the turkeys of which they had large numbers. The dove-cote was alongside of the soap works, in an upper story, affording plenty of dung to cure leather and skins with.
"The padre had an idea that finery led Indians to run away, for which reason he never gave either men or women any other clothing (including skirts and petticoats) than coarse frieze (xerga) made by themselves, which kept the poor wretches all the time diseased with the itch. If any handkerchiefs or cotton goods were discovered among them the same were immediately committed to the flames. He was an inveterate enemy to drunkenness, and did all in his power to prevent it, but to no purpose. He never flogged, however, while the influence of liquor lasted, but put them into stocks, under the care of a guard until sober. Finding the lash alone, was of no avail, he added warm water and salt to the dose, which was given as a drink until it ran out of the mouth again. It was no use. The disease was as incurable as consumption.
"Having found out the game practiced in regard to destroying the children borne by Indian women to white men, he put down all miscarriages to the same cause. Therefore, when a woman had the misfortune to bring forth a still-born child, she was punished. The penalty inflicted was shaving the head, flogging for fifteen subsequent days, iron on the feet for three months, and having to appear every Sunday in church on the steps leading up to the altar, with a hideous painted wooden child in her arms. He had no predilections for wizards, and generally (as some one or other was always reporting evil of them) kept them chained together in couples and well flogged. There were, at that period, no small number of old men rejoicing in the fame of witchcraft, so he made sawyers of them all, keeping them like hounds in couples and so they worked, two above and two below in the sawpit. On a breach occurring between man and wife, they were fastened together by the leg until they agreed to live in harmony. He was not only severe, but he was in his chastisements most cruel. So as not to make a revolting picture, I shall bury acts of barbarity, known to me through good authority, by merely saying that he must assuredly have considered whipping as meat and drink to them, for they had it morning, noon and night. Although so severe to the Indians, he was kind, in the extreme, to travelers and others. There being so much beef, mutton, pork and poultry, with fruits, vegetables and wine, a splendid public table was spread daily, at which he presided."
J.J. Warner, in 1889, furnished the writer the following, as setting forth the usual dinner served daily at San Gabriel Mission during the years of the prosperity: First course: Caldo (plain broth in which meat and vegetables had been boiled). Second course: La Olla (meat boiled with vegetables and served separately). Third course: El Bondigas (forced meat balls in gravy). Fourth course: Guisados (stews, generally two). Fifth course: Azado (roasts-beef, [p. 24] mutton, game, fowls). Sixth course: Fruit and sweetmeat. Seventh course: Tea, coffee, cigarritos. Pork was also eaten sparingly at every meal. Wine was served ad libitum. On Friday, fish followed the caldo, and the meats were dispensed with. Horses to ride were ever at their service, and a good bed to sleep on at night. Whenever ready to start, either up or down the coast, horses and a servant were ever at their command to go as far as the next mission."
Having brought the establishment and everything connected with it to the climax of perfection, Zalvidea had still calculated on doing more. He purchased large quantities of iron, with the intention of railing all vineyards and gardens. But, alas! even Catholic societies are not proof against the "capital sins" they so strongly condemn. Envy and jealousy stepped in and prevailed. He was ordered by his superior to the mission of San Juan Capistrano. The loss of his favorite hobby capsized his reason, and after lingering for many years in a disturbed religious state of mind he at length expired, regretted by all who knew his worth and gigantic intellect.
During his patorate, Zalvidea also mastered the Indian language, and reduced it to grammatical rules, being the first padre in this section having either the ability or energy necessary for such a task. He translated the church service, and preached each Sabbath in the native tongue. His translation of the Lord's Prayer, commencing "Ayoinac," "Our Father," is said by Mr. Reid to be a "a grand specimen of his eloquence and ability." He thus gave the natives an insight into the Catholic faith, but did not alter their own one iota. Those who came after him were too indolent to keep up the reforms he had inaugurated. For a time sermons were translated sentence by sentence, to the congregation; but this was soon discontinued, probably to the great relief of the unfortunate listeners.
Zalvidea was succeeded by Padre José Bernardo Sanchez, his former colleague and assistant, who is described as having been "of a cheerful disposition, and a frank and generous nature." He was also a great sportsman and capital shot. "In ecclesiastical affairs, solemn; in trade, formal; in government of the mission, acitve, lively, and strict; in social intercourse, friendly, full of anecdote, and fond of jokes; even to those of a practical nature."
"The regulations enforced by his predecessor were still observed under Sanchez, but while the lash was still ready, other modes of punishment were adopted for minor offenses. Nor was such leniency barren of good results, for many Indians who had formerly proven insubordinate from mere vindictiveness of spirit, now refrained because of the love and good will which all bore toward their spiritual and temporal ruler.
"Supplies for the mission were purchased in large quantities, frequently amounting to $30,000 at one time. These purchases consisted of domestics [p. 25] (brown, bleached and printed), flannels, cloths, ribbons, silks, hosiery, sugar, panoche, rice, etc., etc. These articles were distributed in two stores, from whence they were dealt out to the natives, or sold to the public. The people were now better dressed than formerly. The coarse frieze (xerga) of the women was used only as sweat-cloths for horses; and all the native ladies appeared at church in full-blown glory of fancy petticoats, clean white chemises, variagated kerchiefs on their head, and rebosos around their shoulders. The men had pants, jackets, hats, and fancy silk sashes. Even the children plumed themselves in gay colors, and sported shirts and kerchiefs.
"Married people were provided with sheets for their beds, and even curtains. The major-domo visited each house weekly to see that all was kept clean, and the priest made a similar round in person once a month. Rations with wine and spirits (and occasionally a few dollars in money) were distributed once a week; but in addition to this, dialy food was provided ready cooked, for the laborers. We quote further from Mr. Reid's letters:
"The mission bell, on being rung, aroused the alcaldes from their slumbers, and these with loud voices soon set all the world agog. Mass was now heard, and again the bell rang to work. At eleven its notes proclaimed dinner, when in all flocked, basket in hand, to receive posale and a piece of beef. (Posale consisted of beans boiled with corn or wheat.) At twelve o'clock they were again warned to their labors, which concluded a little before sundown, to afford them time to receive supper, which consisted of 'atole' or mush. If a gang were at a distance, a copper kettle and attendant accompnaied them and provided food on the spot.
"After twelve o'clock on Saturdays soap was distributed, and all the world went a washing of clothes and persons, to make a decent appearance at church on Sunday. Saturday night was devoted to playing peon, and, with a few exceptions, none slept; for whites and Indians, men, women and children, were all generally present.
"After service on Sunday, foot-ball and races took place, and in the afternoon a game called 'Shindy' by the Scotch, and 'Bandy' by the English, was played, with men and women on opposite sides. People flocked in from all parts to see the sport and heavy bets were made. The priest took great interest in the game and, as the women seldom had less than half a dozen quarrels among them, in which hair flew by the handfuls, he was the more pleased. The game being concluded, all went to prayers and so ended the Sabbath."
The general statistics of the Mission of San Gabriel for the whole period of its existence of sixty-three years (from 1771 to 1834) are thus given by Bancroft: Total number of baptisms, 7,854, of which 4,355 were Indian adults, 2,459 Indian children, and 1 adult and 1,039 children of "gente de razon," [p. 26] which may mean the Spaniards and their mixed-blooded descendents. Total marriages, 1,955; of which 241 were "gente de razon." Total deaths, 5,656; of which 2,896 were Indian adults, 2,363 Indian children, 211 adults and 186 children "de razon," Annual average, 88; annual average death rate, 7.61 per cent of population. Largest population, 1,701 in 1817. There was a slight excess of males down to 1803, and a greater excess later. The proportion of children varied from one-eighth per cent. at first to one-tenth per cent. at the last. Largest number of cattle, 26,300, in 1828; horses, 2,400, in 1827; mules, 205, in 1814; asses, 6 in 1794; sheep, 15,000, in 1829; goats, 1,380 in 1785; swine, 300, in 1802, 1803 and 1822; all kinds, 40,360 animals, in 1830. Total product of wheat, 225,942 bushels; yield, 16 fold. Barley (for only eleven years), 1,250 bushels; yield, 10 fold. Maize, 154,820 bushels; yield, 145 fold. Beans, 14,467 bushels; yield, 28 fold. In the year 1834, at the time of secularization, there were 163,579 vines in four vineyards, and 2,333 fruit trees.
All statistics stop with the attempted secularization of the mission in 1834.
In 1832, Governor Echandia sent an envoy to San Gabriel Mission, demanding a loan, which was refused. The store house was broken open and the money in gold coin forcibly taken and never returned. Secularizatin soon followed, and the mission, with upwards of 42,000 head of live stock and gold in sacks passed into the control of the Mexican government, and, like all the other missions suffered temporal and spiritual destruction.
In June, 1846, the mission estate was sold by Governor Pico to Reid and Workman. The title was not, however, confirmed, and the property returned to the church. In 1847 Father Blas Ordaz took charge of the mission and ministered to the few Indians then remaining, until his death, 1850. It is since secularization, a parish church only, and is now presided over by a parish priest, who holds regular services.
[p. 26.] San Luis Obispo de Toloso, p, 26
On the first of September, 1772, Fathers Junipero Serra and Cavaller founded San Luis Obispo, the fifth mission in California, in honor of St. Louis, Bishop of Toulouse. The history of this mission is a remarkable evidence of the energy and religious zeal of these men of God. Father Serra departed the second day, leaving Father Cavaller, two Lower California Indians, and five soldiers to commence the work of establishing a mission. Their supplies consisted of fifty pounds of flour, three pecks of wheat and a barrel of brown sugar-the sugar to be used in bartering with the native Indians for further supplies. The Indians proved friendly, supplied the missionary with venison, seeds and wild berries, and in many ways helped the Padres. A little chapel and dwelling were soon erected. But Father Cavaller remained alone at his post [p. 27] for one year. Then four immigrant families and a few unmarried Christians came to San Luis Obispo to make it their home. In November, 1776, the buildings, except for the chapel and granary were destroyed by fire, the Indians having thrown burning arrows upon the tule roofs. Twice again in ten years the buildings were on fire from the same cause. For this reason tiles were adopted for roofing, at all missions, instead of the dangerous but economical tules. The adobe church was finished in 1793; other spacious buildings such as barracks, a missionary's house, workhouse, guardhouse, granary, etc., were added the following year. Huts for the natives were comfortable and well built. A trained blacksmith, a carpenter and a millwright were sent to San Luis Obispo to instruct the Indians.
Father Luis Martinez labored long and earnestly for the welfare of this mission. He learned the Indian language and gave assistance, both to the troops and to other missions. Squirrels and locusts weere extremely troublesome, and one crop was entirely eaten up by mice. In the inventory taken 1836, an item is made of the library and musical instruments, $519, and the total valuation was given at $70,779. On September 10th, 1842, Governor Alvarado ordered the lands divided among the neophytes; amd two years later the mission was formed into a pueblo. It was sold the following year (1845) to Scott, Wilson & McKierey for $510. However, Governor Mason ordered the property returned to the Catholic Church.
[p. 27 San Luis Obispo de Toloso. 1908d]
The mission church is located near the business center of San Luis Obispo, county of the same name, and it is in a good state of repair, being used as it is, as the parish church.
[p. 27] San Francisco de Asis, p. 27
Mission San Francisco de Asis, better known as Mission Dolores, is the sixth mission founded in Alta California, and was formerly dedicated October 9th, 1776, by Fathers Palou, Cambon, Nocedal and Pena. Officers and soldiers of the Presidio were present. High mass was sung by Father Palou, the image of St. Francis was exhibited, bells were rung, volleys of musketry rent the air, cannons nd rockets from the good ship San Carlos, lying in the bay, were fired. The building was a comfortable house of wood, roofed with tules and plastered with clay. It measured 54 x 30 x 15 feet. The first chapel blessed was at the presidio, on the 17th of September, on the Feast of Stigmata of St. Francis, [p. 28] the patron saint of the port and mission, while the mission was named for the patron saint of the Franciscan order.
[p. 28 San Francisco de Asis, p. 28, 1908a, 1908d, p. 28]
The name Dolores (sorrow) in this instance signifies the name of a stream or lagoon, a place known as "the willows" by those who came in 1849. This swamp was later filled in and graded, forming the tract that lies between Seventeenth, Nineteenth, Valencia and Howard streets. The corner-stone for the present church was laid 1782, and by 1795, adobe buildings with tile roofs, forming two sides of a square were completed; also a ditch protecting the potrero or cattle farm and fields, had been dug.
Weaving looms were constructed by the Indians and a substantial though coarse kind of blanketing, was woven as clothing for the neophytes. Vancouver describes it as "cloth not to be despised, had it received the advantage of fulling." The products made and produced at Dolores Mission wer soap, salt, wool, hides, wine, tallow and butter. The garden was not notable for its produce, the reason given being high winds and weather unfavorable to horticulture. The climate proveed detrimental to the Indians, and after a fierce epidemic of measles, a new mission known as the "hospital mission" was founded at San Rafael, across the bay, and 590 of the Indians were transferred to this place for a change of climate. Later 322 neophytes were sent to Solano, and it was thought best at one time to discontinue the mission at San Francisco altogether; but the idea met stout opposition from Father President Sarria. Consequently a new mission, known as New San Francisco or Solano, was founded, and the old San Francisco, known as Dolores , was not abandoned. Dolores was not a prosperous mission, and rapidly declined after secularization. The Fathers baptized 6883 persons and buried 2089. The little church-yard at the side of the mission is small and sad. Few monuments mark the resting places of any of the 2000 and over, who lie sleeping in that small space. A tall shaft marks the grave of the first Mexican governor, Don Luis Antonio Arguello.
[p. 28.] San Juan Capistrano, p. 28
The founding of the Mission San Juan Capistrano was accomplished under many discouragements. The first attempt was made by Fathers Lasuen and Amurrio on the 19th or the 30th of October, 1775. Dates given by Palou and Ortega differ. The first service was held in a hut of branches. A large cross [p. 29] was erected and blessed, but nothing further was done at that time. The bells of Capistrano were taken down from the tree and buried.
[p. 29, San Juan Capistrano, 1908d]
On November 1st, 1776, a second attempt was made by Father Serra. A new altar was erected, mass was celebrated, and the seventh mission of California was founded, upon the site known by the Indians as Sajirit. Capistrano became prosperous, but did not excel either in number of converts or in wealth. In February, 1797, work was begun on the stone chapel, the ruins of which are standing today. It proved to be one of the grandest church buildings in California. It measured 159 x 30 feet, was surmounted by a lofty tower, and all was of stone and mortar. The stones were not hewn, but were fitted together in the rough. The church was built with nave and transept with thick walls, and an arched, dome-like roof. Here and there remain evidence of decoration. Ten years ago there still were wooden figures to be seen in many small niches and the carving showing ability and taste. It is to be regretted that these relics were carried away and not placed in the room used as the chapel. The stone church of San Juan Capistrano was dedicated September 7th, 1806. The ceremony lasted three days, and visiting Padres and Indians came long distances, even as far as from Santa Barbara, to witness the ceremony. But the magnificent building was doomed to short service, for on the morning of December 8th, 1812, a terrible earthquake shook it to its very foundation, causing the lofty tower to crash down upon the vaulted roof, precipitating the mass of stone and mortar down upon the worshipping congregation-for it was on Sunday morning. About fifty persons were present, and only ten escaped. Excavation for the recovery of the crushed and mangled bodies began at once, but nothing has ever been done toward restoring the building to its former grandeur. Capistrano was secularized in 1833, and even after the loss of the mission church the inventory placed the valuation of the mission at about $55,000; with debts of only $1410. In December, 1845, the mission buildings were sold to McKinley and Forster for $710.00. Juan Forster was in possession for twenty years, but after extended litigation, the Catholic church regained possession of the property.
The Mission of Santa Clara was founded January 12th, 1777, by Father Tomas de la Pena, O.S.F. The site was the present Laurel Wood Farm of [p. 30] Peter J. Donahue. The floods of 1778-9, however, obliged the Fathers to look for higher and safer grounds. They selected the "Valley of the Oaks," a location some 150 yards to the southwest of the present Union depot of the town of Santa Clara. At the ceremony of the removal of the Santa Clara Mission to the second location, Father Serra was himself present and officiated.
[p. 30 Santa Clara, 1908d]
The structures there were begun November 19th, 1781, and the second church and building were blessed and dedicated on May 15th, 1784. The earthquake of 1812 cracked the walls of the church and the more severe "tremblores" of 1818 completed the destruction. A third church was erected upon the present site of the mission church, and was dedicated on August 11th, 1822, the eve of Santa Clara. This third church was the work of Father José Viader, assisted by Don Ignacio Alviso, as foreman. The orginal adobe walls of this church were replaced in 1862 by the present towers, and the present facades. But the interior, the ornamentations and furnishings are almost intact. These latter include the life-size crucifix, the original holy-water fonts, the pulpits of those early days, the copy of the miraculous and historic painting of "Nuestra Señora de Guadalupe," the identical reredos or background of the main altar, the tabernacle and candleabra-shelves, the wings of the latter itself; the accompanying statues in wood of Saints Joachin and Ann, parents of Our Lady; and like statues of Saints Juan Capistran and Colette. The reredos contain other statues and medallions. The church has the identical frescoed ceiling of the chancel. The paintings of the walls and ceilings of the interior are reproductions; also the statue in wood of St. Francis of Asisi, with sacred stigmata on the hands and feet; also that of St. Anthony of Padua, with the Infant Jesus in his arms. In the right hand belfry are the three old bells donated to the Santa Clara Mission by the King of Spain. Two bear the original dates, 1798 and 1799, and the third, which was recast in 1864, bears the double dates 1805-64. In the college library may be seen the historic paintings of "Alameda," the "Beautiful Way," "Santa Clara Mission in 1851" and the grand old choral of those early days, with cover in bronze and wood.
At the time of Vancouver's visit to Santa Clara, many of the Indians were engaged in building adobe houses for themselves. In 1794, twenty-three of these dwellings with thatched roofs were completed, and in 1798, nearly all of [p. 31] the married neophytes were thus accomodated. Today not a mission Indian is to be found in or about Santa Clara. Her as at all other missions, secularization with one blow ruined fifty years of faithful and patient work of the Padres.
[p. 31, San Buenaventura, p. 31, 1908a, 1908d]
The Mission of San Buenaventura Doctor Sarafico (Saint Bonaventura, Serafic Doctor) was founded Easter Sunday, March 30th, 1783, by Father Serra. It was the last mission that Father Serra founded, and he had intended it to be one of the first. The delay was a trial to the good man, but he comforted himself with the saying, "the more slowly the more solemnly." The place chosen was the head of the Santa Barbara channel and the home of a large tribe of Indians. The Indians were friendly and even assisted in building a chapel, a house for Father Cambon, who was left in charge, and barracks for the soldiers. The group of buildings was, for greater safety, surrounded by a palisade. Within ten years San Buenaventura had become one of the most flourishing settlements in California. Vancouver, who visited the mission in 1793, speaks of the wonderful gardens, the fruits and vegetables. He mentions apples, peaches, pears, plums, figs, oranges, grapes, pomegranates, cocoanut, sugarcane, bananas, plantain, and even indigo; besides all of the ordinary kitchen vegetables, roots and herbs. A disastrous fire compelled the missionaries to erect all new buildings. The new church was built of stone and brick, and it is the one standing today. But the tile roof is gone. The earthquake of 1812 damaged the church and many buildings. The tower and much of the facade were rebuilt. The whole site of Buenaventura settled, and the fear of all sinking into the sea frightened the inhabitants away. They fled to San Joaquin y Santa Ana, where they remained for a year. Here the Priests erected a cajal, or Indian hut, to be used as a chapel. Upon their return to Ventura, the neophytes, under the direction of the Fathers, restored the buildings to a better condition than they were originally. In 1820 the government of Mexico owed to San Buenaventura $35,170. There is no record that it was ever paid. They had purchased supplies form the mission, a cargo of hemp, and were in arrears in stipends to the Fathers for $6,200. In 1822 the Indians had individual gardens along the banks of the river, where they raised vegetables for sale. They labored and might [p. 32] have become self-supporting, for the mission establishments sold great quantities of produce and supplies to the home government as well as supplying their own demands at the missions.
Secularization came in 1837. The mission estate was first rented for $1,630.00 per annum, and then sold to José Arnaz for $12,000, in June, 1846. His title was not recognized by the United States government. The records of San Buenaventura are interesting old documents. They show 3,857 baptisms, 1,086 marriages, 3,098 deaths. In 1831 there were 7,240 head of live stock. Today the old mission is the parish church of Ventura.
[p. 32, Santa Barbara. 1908a, 1908d, p. 32]
Santa Barbara, (Virgin and Martyr) was founded December 4th, 1786, by Father Fermin Francisco de Lasuen, who had been made President of the Missions the previous year to succeed the lamented Junipero Serra.
The site selected was called Taynayam by the natives, and El Pedragoso by the Spaniards. It was about one mile distant from the presido, which had been established in 1782 by Father Serra. The location of Santa Barbara is the most beautiful of all the missions. Back from the water's edge nearly two miles, it is situated in the foothills of the Santa Ynez mountains. It was from the hills of San Marcos that the great oak beams carried by oxen (or more likely by faithful Indian-neophytes) and used in the construction of the mission buildings. Chief Yanoalit, ruler of the thirteen neighboing rancherias, proved friendly and contributed Indians to assist in work, their labor to be paid for in articles of clothing and food. This was especially the arrangement for work on the presidio. The first chapel constructed was of boughs.
In the following year, 1787, a church building 15 x 42 feet, was made of adobe and thatched with straw . Six other buildings of the same kind were erected, and in 1788 tiles were manufactured and all the buildings were covered with them. In 1789 the chapel had become too small, and another was built. Again in 1793 a larger one was constructed, a fact which is evidence of prosperity. As the Indian population was gradually increasing, it became necessary to form a village and build a separate house for each family; in consequence, nineteen houses were built of adobe in 1798. Also a piece of land was enclosed by an adobe wall nine feet high, and 3600 feet in extent; to be used [p. 33] as a garden, orchard and vineyard. The wall was capped with tiles to protect it from the rain. In 1800 the village was laid out in streets and cross-streets, and there were over fifty houses. The neophytes were taught to weave blankets, to make soap, clothing, implements and many other necessary articles. In 1807 the town of Santa Barbara had 252 dwellings beside the store houses, and other necessary buildings, all enclosed on three sides by a high wall.
In this year Santa Barbara dedicated a mission church at the station of Sagshpileel, a large rancheria near a laguna. This was known as San Miguel. Again in 1804 Santa Inez was formed because of the great number of susceptible Indians in this district. The number thus withdrawn from Santa Barbara Mission was over one hundred.
The earthquake of 1812 badly damaged the mission building at Santa Barbara, so much so that the chapel building was torn down and replaced by a new stone ediface-the present structure. This new ediface was dedicated on September 10th, 1820. The walls of the church, which is still used by the Fathers, are six feet in thickness and were made of hewn stone, strengthened by solid stone buttresses. The building is the most substantial of any of the missions in California. In June, 1846, the mission was sold to Richard S. Den for $7500, but the title was invalid. In 1852, a petition to establish a Franciscan convent or college, with a novitiate for the education of young men, was sent to Rome and was granted by the authorities. Santa Barbara Missioon was selected for the purpose. Bishop Thaddeus Amat removed from the mission to the parish church, thus leaving the Fathers in possession. By this arrangement they will have perpetual use of the buildings, gardens, vineyard and two orchards. The inner garden of the Mission is the private park or retreat for the priests, and is closed to the public. With two notable exceptions, woman has never entered this garden. They were Mrs. Benjamin Harrison, wife of the then President of the United States, and Princess Louise Marchioness of Lorne. The East garden, comprizing about one acre of land, is a part of the old burying ground and contains over four hundred bodies, one buried upon another. It is a beautiful spot, covered with roses, geraniums, rare plants and trees.
The most valued treasure of Santa Barbara is a portion of the true cross brought from the Holy Land. The Mission archives are of inestimable value to California history. The library contains massive books of parchment, illuminated, and rare old manuscripts, descriptive of life and scenes of early days in this country. When the missions secularized, books, manuscripts and most valuable records were sent to Santa Barbara Mission for safe keeping and many still remain there. Huge chests are filled with gorgeous robes and vestments, many of them made of richest brocades.
[p. 34, La Purisima Concepcion, 1908a, 1908d, p. 34]
[p. 34] La Purisima Concepcion.
December 8th, 1787, Father Lasuen founded the Mission of La Purisma Concepcion in honor of the Immaculate Conception of the Blessed Virgin. It is situated on the Santa Ynez river. The first church building was replaced by a new one of adobe with tile roof in 1795. Father Payeras, with the aid of interpreters, completed in 1810, a catechism and manual of confession in the Indian language. This was of greatest advantage to the neophytes in the study of religion. However, there remained at this time no more Indians than twenty-five or thirty leagues away, to be converted. In 1815 Fathere Payeras became president of the California missions, but he continued to reside at Purisima, instead of repairing to San Carlo del Carmelo.
Early in the morning of December 12, 1812, a violent earthquake shook the church walls out of plumb, a second shock about 11 o'clock destroyed the chapel completely, and nearly all of the mission buildings, besides about 100 of the neophyte houses. Rents in the earth from which black sand and water oozed, added to the peril. Huts of wood and grass were erected for temporary use. Later the mission was moved to a position farther up the river, The first church building erected here was destroyed by fire and another one erected and dedicated October 4th, 1825, the remains of which are to be seen today. It is a long, low structure, and had twenty-one rooms. There were twelve smaller buildings about it. The church ornaments were valued in 1834 at nearly $5000; the library at $655; there were five bells, worth $1000. In fact, the mission property, live-stock and ranchos were valued at over $60,000. In 1845 it was sold by the Governor to John Temple for $1,110; and La Purisma was abandoned by its rightful owers, the Indians and the Padres.
The location is about three miles from the town of Lompoc, in Santa Barbara county.
Santa Cruz, the Mission of the Holy Cross, was formally established by Don Hermenegildo Sal, on Sunday, Septtember 25, 1791. The site had been selected and blessed by Father Lasuen, August 28, on the day of San Augustin. Near [p. 35] by was a fine stream in the Arroyo de Pedro Regalado, which is now known a Rio San Lorenzo. Huts were built by the Indians, land was prepared, and wheat sown. The founding of the mission was most favorable, as many of the Indians came and offered help with the work, while their chief, Sugert, presented himself, with a few of his followers, and promised to become the first Christian of his tribe, and Sal agreed to be godfather. In the history of the founding of the mission, it is an interesting fact tha frequently everything wherewith to establish a new mission was contributed as a loan by the other missions. In this instance Santa Clara contributed 64 head of cattle, 22 horses, 77 fanegas of grain, and 26 loaves of bread. San Francisco gave five yoke of oxen, 70 sheep and two bushels of barley. San Carlos gave eight horses and seven mules. The vestments and sacred vessels were loaned from other missions, also tools and implements, until those intended for Santa Cruz should arrive from Mexico, The mission was beautifully situated, near the waters of the Bay of Monterey, and as a background there was a dense forest. Although the founding was auspicious, the mission never beccame an important or even flourishing establishment, because of the close proximity of the penal station of Branciforte, which later became the town of Santa Cruz. At the present date, however, all of the unpleasant associations of the convict life have disappeared as wholly as have the old mission buildings, and the Santa Cruz of today is one of California's charming resorts. The corner-stone of the mission church was laid February 27, 1793. The building was 120 x 30 feet. The walls were of stone to the height of three feet, the front was of masonry, and the rest of adobe. In 1812, Father Andres Quintana was brutally murdered by nine or ten of the Mission Indians. Though sick himself, he left his rooms at night to call upon a man said to be dying. On the way home he was murdered. It was two years before the murderers were apprehended and punished. Their defense was that of cruelty on the part of the father; but the fact that he had left his sick bed to minister to a dying man belied the accusation, and the murderers were condemned to work in chains from two to ten years. Only one survived the punishment. When Santa Cruz was secularized, in 1835, ten thousand dollars of the church money was divided among the neophytes. In 1839 Hartnell found but seventy of the Indians remaining and all of the money gone. Of the mission itself there is now hardly a trace. The portion of a tile-covered shed in the rear of the present church is all that remains. A few relics, among them two mission books used by the Indians, may be seen in the church.
[p. 36 La Soledad, Mission of, p. 36, 1908a, 1908d ]
[p. 36 San Jose, Mission of, p. 36, 1908a, 1908d ]
The Mission of "Our Lady of Solitude" ("Soledad"), was founded October 9th, 1791, by Father Lasuen. The sites for Soledad and Santa Cruz were selected upon the same trip. Governor Portola named this lonely spot Soledad in 1769, but it was not until 1797 that the adobe structure with its roof of straw, which was known as the chapel of Soledad, was completed. Later a tiled roof and corridors were added. Soledad became a flourishing Christian settlement, but after secularization in 1835, so great was the devastation and ruin that the venerable Father Vincente Sarria, who had labored for the mission for thirty years, and who refused to leave his post of duty or the remaining Indians, died here in 1835, the year of the secularization, of starvation and want. June 4th, 1846, Soledad Mission was sold to Feliciano Soberanes for $800, yet the inventory of '35 had shown a valuation of $30,000, besides the church property.
A heap of ruins standing alone in an open field, used for the growing of grain, is all that today remains of Soledad Mission. The Indians called the place Chuttusgelis, but the Spaniards called it Solitude.
Mission San José was founded June 11, 1797, Trinity Sunday. By an order from the College of Fernando, Mexico, the new mission was dedicated to St. Joseph, the foster-father of our Our Lord. A wooden structure with grass roof was quickly constructed, and Father Barcenilla was left in charge. San José was founded by Father Lasuen. The northern missions contributed very generously toward the establishment of the new one. They sent 12 mules, 12 yoke of oxen, 39 horses, 242 sheep and 60 pigs. The Indians from the adjacent hills proved to be treacherous and cruel. ?Father Cueva after having labored five years among them, was cruelly attacked, wounded and almost killed. He had been called a long distance from the mission about [p. 37] fifteen miles, to attend to some sick neophytes. Upon arriving at the rancheria, the natives attacked him and his guard with arrows, killing the guard, a soldier and three neophytes and wounding Father Cueva. On account of the treachery of the Indians, and their having made several attempts to do injury to the padres and to the buildings, the houses were soon reconstructed and made of brick from the excellent brick-earth near by. There are chalk hills near San José, and everywhere the soil is rich and fertile. The establishment was never extensive nor imposing, yet at one time Mission San José had a greater number of neophytes than any other mission in California, with the single exception of San Luis Rey. The illustration shows the mission as it was years ago, and gives only some idea of the plan of the establishment. San José was never wealthy, but still they could order a bell weighing 1000 pounds, and that was considered a luxury. At the time of the secularization the church property was valued at $155,000 over and above the debts. On May 5th, 1846, San José Mission was sold to Andres Pico and J.B. Alvarado, for $12,000, by Governor Pio Pico.
[p. 37] San Juan Bautista, p. 37
The Mission of San Juan Bautista was built on the edge of a mesa, overlooking a fertile valley, of what is now San Benito county, in San Juan Valley, about seven miles from Hollister, the county seat. It was 200 x 70 feet on the ground and height of walls were forty-five feet, being higher than most of the mission churches. Each of the walls were supported by four buttresses. Those on the northeast are still standing; one remains at the back; while the entire wall on the west is covered with redwood lumber, to support and to protect it from the elements.
[p. 37, San Juan Bautista, p. 37, 1908a, 1908d,]
The church was built with a nave and transepts. The nave is subdivided by seven arches, five of which have been walled in, presumably to strengthen the building. There is a choir loft over the door entrance at the front. The church is lighted wtih eight quaint little windows, with glass of small panes about five inches square.
The baptismal font, carved from sandstone, stands about three feet high, and is three feet in diameter, and over it hangs an ancient picture of the baptism of Christ. The principal altar is dedicated to St. John the Baptist, and is very gaudily frescoed and painted. Statues of redwood, one life-size of St. John, [p. 38] and four smaller ones, are executed with rare talent and artistic effect. That they are of our native woods proves that the padres, Indians, or perchance a Mexican, who dwelt at the mission, was more than ordinarily gifted in carving.
In the mission gardens are pear trees, planted a century ago. The cemetery, one acre in size, is full to the limit. In many graves are said to be buried six bodies, one above the other. In all, 4,557 bodies are there interred. An old sun dial in the garden is an object of interest, carved from sandstone long before the day of clocks in this country. It was originally intended for San Felipe and is therefore one second slow for San Juan Bautisa.
The site of San Juan, was selected as early as 1786, but the church of San Juan Bautista was not established until June 24, 1797, the day dedicated to the patron saint, John the Baptist. Work upon the chapel and the various buildings was begun immediately. It took hundreds of workers fifteen years to complete the task, and the chapel was dedicated by Father President Esteban Tapis, June 25, 1812. The establishment was so constructed as to form a court 200 feet square with buildings on three sides of it, and a high wall on the fourth. The material used was adobe (sun-dried brick) and ladiello, a kind of brick that was frequently used for flooring, and was made in a suterranean kiln. Adobes are made of certain mud mixed with straw or tough grrass. Being thoroughly kneaded by hand or trodden by foot it is molded in the desired shape and dimensions and dried in the sun. Size, 1 x 30 x 4 inches and weight about 50 pounds. The ladellos were 8 x 12 x 2 inches, and after baking in a kiln were very hard. The old floor at this mission is more than a century old, and is in fair condition. The buildings were originally roofed with tile, a portion of which has given place to shingles until such a time as the tile can be restored. The walls of San Juan have been allowed to retain the delicate tint of cinnabar that colored the mortar, and left an effect tht no after-tinting can successfully imitate.
The fine music of San Juan was a feature of the mission and a reason of its success. A chime of nine bells once called to worship. Only one of these now remains. A second one was cast from two of the originals in 1874, but lacks the sweet tone of the old ones. The other six bells have been given to other churches. An interesting and ingenious attachment to the original chime of bells is an old wooden wheel, with hollow arms, about two inches square, hung on an axle. Between each two arms is hung a wooden clapper, and as the wheel revolves, these clappers successively rap on the hollow arms. This wheel was used to call the people to worship upon occasions when the Catholic church rings no bells and could be heard at a great distance.
The Padres placed a small organ (the first brought to California), on an elevation overlooking the valley, and swiftly turned the crank, and when the Indians first heard the strange sounds, they fell upon their faces in fear; but as [p. 39] the music continued their fear left them and they began to enjoy the sweet sounds. Finally they slowly approached the hill and gradually gathered about the Padre and the wonderful singing box and listened with delight. After playing for an hour or more, he offered them sweets and told them that he had come to live among them, and the good man received a hearty welcome. The box is a hand organ standing about 4 1/2 feet high. It has tin pipes and was built by Benjamin Bodson, 22 Swan Street, London, England, in 1735. It was brought to San Juan in 1797. It became disabled and was removed to the storehouse of the mission, where it remained for many years, when a wandering tinker stopped at the mission for something to eat and repaired it. Father Tapis, the priest of San Juan, composed a great deal of music for the California missions. Three large volumes if his work remain at the mission alone. Much of the music is on parchment, and in bold, clear characters.
The chapel of San Juan Bautista could accomodate one thousand or more worshippers, and in prosperous days the capacity was frequently taxed to its fullest. The mission possessed extensive lands and great herds. Between the years 1797 and 1835, 4,100 persons were baptized. When the crash of secularization came, the inventory showed a valuation of $147,413. In 1846, San Juan was sold for debt. There are many choice mementoes at San Juan church-ancient candlesticks of curious pattern, the old bass viol, the rude music stand, a violin past all music, the old organ, vestments, robes and sheet music, torn and faded, but dear to the devout and interesting to the historian. Today it is an impoverished parish church-but nevertheless one of the most interesting and artisic relics of the mission period.
[p. 39] San Miguel Arcangel, p. 39
The Mission of San Miguel (St, Michael, the Arcangel), "the most glorious prince of the heavenly militia," was founded on July 25, 1797, by Father Lasuen, assisted by Father Buenaventura Sitjar. The site chosen was a beautiful spot on the Salinas River called by the Indians Vahiá or Vaticá, and by the Spaniards Las Pozas. Father Lasuen says that a great multitude of Indians gathered about with pleased expression, while he held the first service that founded the Mission of San Miguel. The chapel consisted of the wide-spreading branches of an old oak tree. A wooden church with mud roof, was soon erected, and it was not replaced with the present structure until 1800. In 1801, three Indians attempted to poison Fathers Martin and Carnicer. Father Pujol, who came from San Carlos to attend the sick missionaries, was also poisoned, and died, while the two whom he came to minister unto recovered. In 1806, a fire occurred, which destroyed all the implements belonging to the mission, all of the raw material, large quantities of wool, hides, cloth, and 6000 bushels of wheat; besides doing great damage to the building. The other missions contributed [p. 40] to the relief of the burned San Miguel. The largest enrollement of this mission was in 1814, when there were 1076. Total number of baptisms was 2588, and the largest number of cattle owned at one time was 10,558, in 1822. All this bespeaks the prosperity of the establishment. In 1819 Father Cabor made a safe journey into the valley of the Tulares, a thing quite unusual, and a proof of the safety of the country at that period. When the Indians of San Miguel were consulted regarding the scheme of secularization, they expressed themselves as decidely in favor of the missionary fathers and their system. Their preference was of no avail, and the mission was confiscated in 1836, with a valuation of $82,000. By 1845, all property had disappeared, except the buildings, valued at $5800, which were ordered sold by Governor Pico. The sale was made July 4th, 1846, P. Rios and William Reed being the purchasers. Later the title was declared invalid, and the buildings restored to the church.
[p. 40, San Miguuel Arcangel, 1908d]
The mission buildings consist of a chapel and a long row of low adobe buildings. The corridor is a feature of the main edifice, the interior of which is to many most interesting, since it remains in its original condition, showing its ancient decorations and fixtures. The altar, very effective in color and design, is a valuable piece of decorative art. It is crowned with a statue of St. Michael, the patron saint. The floors are of burnt brick laid in alternating rows of oblongs and squares. The chapel is in use and there is a resident priest.
[p. 40] San Fernando Rey de Espana, p. 40
The mission of San Fernando was the second to be established within the present limits of Los Angeles county, and was founded September 8, 1797. by President Lasuen, assisted by Francisco Dumetz, at a site called by the natives Achois Comihavit, on the lands claimed by Francisco Reyes, who quarreled with the friars respecting the ownership of the land. The priests appropriated Reyes' ranch home for their dwelling. The mission was established with the usual religious ceremonies, in the presence of the troops and a great crowd of natives, and dedicated as required by instructions from Mexico to San Fernando, King of Spain. St. Ferdinand was Fernando III, who reigned in 1217-'51, and under whose rule the crowns of Castile and Leon were united. He was the founder of the Spanish Inquisition, and was canonized in 1671 by Pope Clement X.
[p. 41, San Fernando Rey de Espana, p. 41, 1908a, 1908d ]
[p. 41] Fracisco Javier Uria was associate priest with Dumetz. The children were baptized the first day, and thirteen adults had been added to the list early in October. In 1797, there were fifty-five neophytes on the baptismal register; in 1800 there were 310, there having been to that date 352 baptisms and seventy deaths. The number of cattle (including mules and horses) in 1800 was 526 and of sheep 600. In 1799 there were 1,200 bushels of wheat, corn and barley raised, and the total yield for the three years 1798-1800 was 4,700 bushels.
The adobe church with a tile roof, the ruins of which yet remain, were completed and consecreted in December, 1806. An earthquake occurred December 21, 1812, that did some slight damage to the church building, necessitating the introduction of thirty new beams to support the wall. In 1813 a neophyte was killed by the Indian alcalde, who threw a club at him from a distance of some sicty feet with a view to hasten his work. The killing was deemed accidental, and the penalty imposed was two month's imprisonment in the presidio, During 1816-'18 a large number of neophytes deserted; before 1818 a new chapel was completed. The greatest population of this mission was 1,080, in 1819, and then began its decline.
Captain de la Guerra, in 1821, applied for a grant of the Piru Rancho, which Father Ybarra was already using to some extent for the mission herds. The controversy resulted in de la Guerra failing to obtain the rancho; but it was not secured for the mission. About this time complaint was made that the soldiers behaved badly, selling liquor to the Indians. The mission was no longer prosperous in any respect, showing a decline in live stock and agriculture. The amount of supplies furnished by this mission to the soldiers in 1822-27 was $21,203.
In 1834, with others, the Mission San Fernando was secularized, with Lieutenant Del Valle as the commissioner in charge. Ybarre [sic] continued his ministry until the middle of the year 1835, when he temporarily retired to Mexico.
Del Valle became major-dome the next year, which position he held until the year 1837, when he was succeeded by Anastasio Carrillo. Captain José M. Villavicencio served as administrator from the middle of the year 1838. In 1840 there were still about 400 Indians in the ex-mission community.
At one period of its history, there were nearly one and a half miles of buildings connected with this mission, these including residences, workshops, schools and storehouses, all of which are now in ruins. The edifice erected especially as the abode for the padres and reputed to be the finest of its kind in Alta California, [p. 42] is, however, still standing in a fair state of preservation. It is principally interesting as having been the abode of the Mexican General, Andrés Pico, and was his headquarters during the war of occupation. It is a two-story, nearly 300 feet in length by eighty feet in width, inside measurements; and the walls-of brick and adobe-are four feet thick. The rafters, after being cut in the mountain forests many miles away, were dragged here by Indians and oxen, each log being occasionally turned upon the way, "that all sides might be planed alike," They are as smooth as though really planed. The long corridor of this building is paved with brick, and the heavy tile roof is supported by arches and columns of masonry. Many of the windows are protected by iron bars, giving it a somewhat prison-like appearance.
The church is 40 x 60 varas, tile roofed, board ceiling, brick floor, adobe walls, three doors, seven windows with wooden bars; sacristy, eight varas square, with one door and window.
The general statistics of the San Fernando Mission from the date of its foundation till its secularization in 1834, are as follows: Total number of baptisms 2,839, of which 1,415 were Indian adults, 1,367 Indian children, 57 children de razon. Total marriages, 849, of which 15 were gente de razon. Deaths, 2,028; 1,036 were Indian adults, 965 Indian children, 12 white adults and 15 white children. The largest population was 1,080 in 1819. The sexes were nearly equal; children from one-fourth to one-third. Largest number of cattle, 12,800 in 1819; horses, 1,320 in 1820; mules, 340 in 1812; sheep, 7,800 in 1819; goats, 600 in 1816; swine, 250 in 1814; all kinds, 21,745 animals in 1819. Total product of wheat, 119,000 bushels, yield nineteen fold; barley, (only raised six years) 3,070 bushels, fourteen fold; maize, 27,750 bushels, eighty-three fold; beans, 3,624 bushels, fourteen fold.
It has been in part restored by the Landmarks Club.
[p. 42] San Luis Rey de Francia
The Mission of San Luis Rey de Francia (Saint Louis IX, King of France, member of the Franciscans) was founded by Frs. Lasuen, Santiago and Peyri, on June 3, 1798. The ceremony of dedication was supplemented by the baptism of fifty-four children. Within a week Father Peyri, who was left in charge, had baptzed seventy-seven more. By July 1 he had 6,000 adobe bricks ready to begin the erection of the mission buildings. It was due to Father Peyri's energy, zeal and executive ability that San Luis Rey, the grandest mission building of Alta California, was erected. It was completed in 1802. During the first decade this mission made greater gains in number of neophyte population and had a lower death rate than any other establishment. Father Peyri was beloved by all. He ministered personally to the needs of his charges, and likewise superintended the agricultural pursuits. In 1818 San Luis Rey was the most prosperous mission in [p. 43] California, and this in spite of the fact that so many of its sheep died that it was necessary for the padres to go as far north as San Juan Bautista to obtain wool enough for clothing.
[p. 43 San Luis Rey, 1908d ]
Father Peyri early established a hospital and taught the Inidians the rudiments of healthful living. The highest number of neophyte enrolled at one time was 2,869. in 1826. In 1828 there was a white population of thirty-five at San Luis Rey. Father Peyri, unlike most of the Franciscans in California, was a strong supporter of the Mexican republic and his surprise and disappointment at the expulsion of the Order in 1829 knew no bounds. The pathetic romance of his being spirited away at night and taken on board a vessel lying in the Bay of San Diego, is one well known to those interested in the missions. When the neophytes learned that Father Peyri was gone, many of them mounted their ponies and rode in the gray dawn of the morning in a wild chase to the sea, in order to rescue their padre and bring him back to the mission. As they appeared on the shore the ship weighed anchor and slowly sailed out to sea. It is said that two venturesome boys swam after the shp and were taken on board and carried to Spain with the Father.
San Luis Rey is the only mission that progressed after secularization; but it, too, declined after a few years, and was finally sold, on May 18, 1846, to José A. Cot and José A. Pico for $2,437; but their agent was dispossessed by General Fremont, and they failed to regain possession. Later it was decided that the governor had had no power to sell the mission. San Luis Rey was used as a military post by our troops during the Mexican war, and at the close of the war the government caused an estimate to be made of the cost of repairing and restoring it to its former condition. The figures were $2,000,000.
An inventory taken August 22nd, 1835, gives a fair idea of the importance and wealth of the mission. Valuation, $203,737.00; debts, $93,000.00; the church, of adobe, tile roof, clay floor, board ceilings, nine doors, eighteen windows, four adjoining rooms, value $30,000.00, was included in the total amount, as was also the six ranchos, valued at $40,437.00. These were Pala, Santa Margarita, San Jacinto, Santa Ysabel, Temecula and one other.
In the day of its glory and wealth, San Luis Rey was the pride of all the missions. It owned and pastured upon its lands an annual aveage of 20,000 head of cattle, and nearly as many sheep. It kept 3,000 Indians to perform the various kinds of service. In 1834 the mission had 3,500 neophytes to support. In [p. 44] the zenith of its prosperity, it raised and harvested annually more than 60,000 bushels of grain, and 250 barrels of wine were produced from the vineyards.
The church is an imposing structure, 50 x 160 feet, and walls sixty feet in height, by four feet in thickness. The tower at one corner contained eight bells. The ornaments and vestments of the church, in gold and silver, were very rich and beautiful. On one side of the mission building extended a corridor of two hundred and fifty arches. In the rear was a large square enclosed by buildings on each side. The front and rear sides formed corridors, with beautiful arches. In this square was a well-kept garden, with a stone fountain, the favorite retreat of the padres.
In 1892, steps were taken by Father O'Keefe, who for so many years was well known at Santa Barbara Mission, to restore San Luis Rey to a condition of usefulness, and the good father had succeeded so admirably that May 12th, 1894, the mission was rededicated and title passed to the Franciscan order of the Catholic church. A school for the training of priests of the order is now maintained there.
[p. 44, Santa Ynez, Virgin y Martyr, 1908d]
[p. 44] Santa Ynez, Virgin y Martyr, p. 44
The Mission Santa Ynez was founded September 17th, 1804. The work of the Mission Fathers was there begun by the baptizing of twenty-seven children. The present buildings were not commenced until after the destructive earthquake of September 21st, 1812, when a corner of the old church and many of the best houses were destroyed. It was at Santa Ynez that the serious and wide-spread Indian revolt of 1824 started. After destroying many of the buildings they fled to Purisima and set fire to that establishment.
At the time of secularization, Santa Ynez was valued at $56,000. In 1844, the Mission had sufficient energy, enterprise and wealth to establish a seminary of learning. The Fathers, through the efforts of Bishop Garcia, received a liberal grant of land from the government for this institution, besides an endowment of $500 per annum, on condition that all Californians in search of higher education be admitted thereto. There were about 270 Indians at Santa Ynez at this time. By order of Governor Pico, in 1836, the entire estate was rented to José Covarrubias and Joaquin Carrillo for $580 per annum. The mission was finally sold to the lessees in 1846, for $7,000, but the title was declared invalid. Santa Ynez remained a religious institution until 1850, when it was abandoned, and the Fathers went to Santa Barbara.
[p. 45, San Rafael, 1908d ]
[[p. 45, San Francisco de Solano, 1908d ]
The mission of San Rafael, the first one located north of San Francisco, was established December 18th, 1817. The Fathers and the Government of California had a double purpose in fixing the site of the establishment. It was intended to head off the Russian encroachment from the north, and also as a refuge for the neophytes of San Francisco de Asis, of which it was a branch. A scourge had become epidemic at Mission Dolores and many of its occupants were transferred to the new site, which was supposed to be in a healthier region.
This establishment was never very populous or influential. It reached its zenith in 1828 when a membership of 1,140 neophytes were reported. After this date it steadily declined and at the time of its secularization only about 500 Indians remained. During its existence, 1873 converts were baptized.
[p. 45] San Francisco de Solano, p. 45
On the 4th of July, 1823, a cross was blessed, Holy Mass was offered up, sacred songs were sung, and the Mission of San Francisco de Solano was founded. It was called New San Francisco. It was not until April 4th, 1824, that the mission church was formally dedicated, by Father Altimira, to the patron saint of the Indies. This structure was of wood, and the one of adobe, the remains of which are seen today, was erected the same year, many articles being donated by the Russians, then living in that region of the country. The walls of the new church were about completed, when a terrific downpour of rain, lasting several days, did great injury and changed the original plan. At the close of the year, 1824, the mission numbered 639 neophytes, many of whom had come from San Francisco, San José, and San Rafael. At the time of secularization the movable property was distributed to the Indians. After 1840, Solano had no existence as a mission community. During its entire history, 1,31 persons were there baptized. Its greatest population was in 1823, when there were 996 persons enrolled.
[p. 46] Chapter IV. Friom Monarchy to Republicanism.
Pablo Vicente de Sola was governor of California when Mexico attained independence from Spain. He was of Spanish birth and was bitterly opposed to the Revolution, even going so far as to threaten death to any one who should speak in favor of it. Although the rule of Spain in Mexico was overthrown in September, 1821, it was not until March, 1822, that official dispatches reached Sola informing him of the change. The "plan of Iguala" under which Iturbide finally overthrew the Spanish power contemplated the placing of Fernando VII on the throne of the Mexican Empire, or if he would not accept then some scion of the royal family of Spain. Such a termination tothe revolution did not affect Sola's loyalist sympathies. He called a junta to meet at Monterey and on the 11th of April the oath was taken to the new government.
But Sola's royalist sympathies received a rude shock a few months later when news reached California that Iturbide had seized the government for himself and been proclaimed Emperor with the imposing title of "Augustin I, by Divine Providence and by the Congress of the Nation, first Constitutional Emperor of Mexico." In September, 1822, the flag of Spain that for half a century had waved over the palacio of the governor at Monterey, was lowered and the imperial banner of Mexico took its place. California, from the dependency of a kingdom, had become a province of an empire. Scarce half a year after the flag of the empire floated on the breeze had passed when the emperor was dethroned and forced into exile. The downfall of the empire was followed by the establishment of a republic fashioned after that of the United States. The country over which the viceroys of Spain had ruled for three hundred years was divided into nineteen states and four territories. Only the states were allowed representatives in the senate; the territories, of which Alta California was one, were to be governed by a governor appointed by the president and a diputacion, or territorial assembly, elected by the people. Each territory was entitled to send a diputado, or delegate, to the Mexican congress.
Luis Antonio Argüello succeeded Sola as governor, or gefe politico (political chief), as the officer was later styled under the republic. He was elected, November 9, 1822, president of the provisional diputacion and by virtue of his office became temporary governor instead of Sola, who had been elected delegate to the imperial congress. Argüello was a native Californian, having been born at the presidio of San Francisco in 1784. He was a man of limited education, but made good use of what he had. Like Sola he had been a pronounced royalist during the revolution, but with the downfall of Spanish domination he had submitted gracefully to the inevitable.
[p. 47] The success of the revolution was most bitterly disappointing to the mission padres. Through the long years of strife between Mexico and the mother country they had hoped and prayed for the triumph of Spain. In the downfall of Spanish domination and the rise of Republicanism, they read the doom of their feudal institution, the mission. On the promoulgation of the Federal Constitution of October, 1824, in California, Father Vicente de Serria, the president of the missions-a Spaniard and a royalist-not only refused to take the oath of allegiance to it, but also declined to perform religious services to it. An order was issued by the Supreme Government for his arrest; but before it reached California he had been superseded in the presidency by Father Narciso Duran of San José. A number of the paderes wer hostile to the Reppublic and evaded taking the oath of allegiance on the ground of obedience to the orders of their Superior. Their unfriendly attitude to the Republic was one of the causes that led to the secularization of the missions a few years later.
The Mexican government, shortly after its inauguration, removed most of the restrictions imposed by Spain against foreigners settling in California and the colonization law of 1824 was liberal. The state religion was the Roman Catholic and all foreigners who settled in the country were required to embrace it. During Spanish domination not more than half a dozen foreigners had been allowed to become permanent residents. The earliest English settler was John Gilroy, who was left by his vessel at Monterey in 1814. He married a daughter of Ignacio Ortega and at one time owned a large body of land, but died poor. Joseph Chapman, the first American settler, was one of Bouchard's men, captured at Monterey in 1818.
Beginning with Baron Rezanoff's visit to San Francisco, in 1806, for the purpose of buying grain for the starving Russian colony at Sitka, the Russians made frequent visits to the coast, partly to obtain supplies, but more for the purpose of hunting seal and sea otter. Their Aleut fur hunters in their bidarkas, or skin canoes, killed otter in San Francisco bay and the Spaniards, destitute of boats or ships, were powerless to prevent them. In 1812 they built a village and fort about 18 miles north of Bodega bay, which they named Ross, and which mounted ten cannon. They also maintained a port on Bodega bay, and a small station on Russian river. The Spanish protested against this invasion of territory and threatened to drive out the Russians, but nothing came of either of their protests or threats. The Russian ships came for supplies and were welcomed by the people and the padres, if not by the government officials. The Russian colony was not a success, and after the decline of fur hunting the settlement became unprofitable, and in 1841, the building and stock were sold by the Russian government to Captain John A. Sutter for $30,000. The settlement was abandoned and the fort and town have long since fallen into ruins.
Among the foreigners who came to California soon after the establishment of Mexican independence and became prominent in affairs may be named, W.E.P. Hartnell, Captain John R. Cooper, William A. Richardson, Daniel A. Hill, [p. 48] and William A. Gale. William Edward Petty Hartnell came from Lima as a member of the firm of McCullock, Harnell & Co., engaged in the hide and tallow trade. Hartnell was an Englishman by birth, well educated and highly respected. He married Maria Teresa de la Guerra and twenty-five children were born to them. He died in Monterey in 1859. William A. Gale came in 1810 as a Boston fur trader. He returned to the territory in 1822 on the ship Sachem, the pioneer Boston hide drogher. It brought to the coast a number of Americans who became permanent residents of the country. California on account of its long distance from the centers of trade had bt few product for exchange that would bear the cost of transportation. Its chief commodities for barter, during the Mexican era , were hides and tallow. The vast range of country adapted to cattle raising made that its most profitable industry. After the removal of the restrictions on commerce with foreigners b the Mexican government, a profitable trade grew up between New England ship owners and the California ranchers. Vessels were fitted out in Boston with a cargo of assorted goods suitable for the trade. Voyaging around Cape Horn and stopping at the various points along the coast they exchanged their stock of goods and Yankee "notions" for hides and tallow. It took from two to three years to make the voyage out from Foston and return, but the profits on the goods sold and on the hides received in exchange were so large that these ventures paid handsomely. Cattle raising, up to the time of the discovery of gold in 1848, continued to be the principle industry of the country.
During the first decade of republican rule, there was but little change in political conditions or in the views of the people concerning the government. Mission rule was still dominent and the people were subservient to the government appointed over them. But with the increase of foreigners and the advent of ex-revolutionists from Mexico, the old-time native Caifornia Loyalists gradually became imbued with a kind of republicanism that transformed them into malcontents, whose protests against the sins of governmental officials took the form of pronounciatmentos and revolutions
The first of the numerous revolts against the rule of the governors, appointed by the Mexican government occurred in November, 1829. The soldiers at the presidio for years had received but a small part of their pay and were but poorly clothed and provisioned. The garrison at Monterey rebelled and seized and imprisoned their officers. That at San Francisco followed their example. Under the leadership of Joaquin Solis, an ex-revolutionist of Mexico who had been banished from that country, they marched southward to meet Governor Echandia, who was moving northward with a force of about 100 men from San Diego, where he had established his capital. The two forces met at Dos Pueblos, near Santa Barbara, and a bloodless battle ensued. The rebellious "escoltas" (militia) were pardoned and returned to duty. Herrarra, the deposed commissary-general ; Solis, and several other leaders were arrested and sent to Mexico to be [p. 49] tried for high crimes and misdemeanor. On their arrival in that land of revolutions, they were turned loose and eventually returned to Californa.
The principal cause of the California disturbances was the jealousy and dislike of the "hijos del pais" (native sons) to the Mexican-born officers who were appointed by the superior government to fill the offices. Many of these were adventurers who came to the country to improve their fortunes and were not scrupulous as to methods or means, so that the end was accomplished.
[p. 49] Chapter V. Revolution and Secularization. p. 49
Manuel Victoria succeeded Echandia as gefge politico of Alta California in January 1831. Victoria was a soldier, arbitrary and tyrannical, and refused to convoke the diputacion or territorial assembly. From the outset he was involved in quarrels with the leading men of the territory. Exiles, imprisonment and banishment were meted out to small offences and sometimes for none at all. At length José Antonio Carrillo and Don Abel Stearns, who had been exiled to Lower California with Juan Bandini and Pio Pico, residents of San Diego, formulated a plot for the overthrow of Victoria, and issued a promounciamento arraigning him for misdeeds and petty tyrannies. The soldiers at the presidio, with their Captain, Portilla, joined the revolt, and with the leading conspirators, and fifty men marched northward. At Los Angeles they released the prisoners from the jail and chained up instead Alcalde Sanchez, the petty despot of the pueblo who had been very ready to carry out the arbitrary decrees of Victoria.
The San Diego army, augmented by the liberated prisoners and volunteers from Los Angeles, to the number of 150 men, marched out to meet Victoria, who with a small force was moving southward to suppress the rebellion. The two armies met west of Los Angeles in the Cahuenga valley. In the fight that ensued José Maria Avila, who had been imprisoned by Victoria's orders in the pueblo jail, charged single-handed upon the governor himself. He killed Captain Pacheco, of Victoria's staff and dangerously wounded the governor himself. Avila was killed by one of Victoria's men. Victoria's army retired with the wounded governor to San Gabriel mission and the revolutionists retired to Los Angeles. Next day, the governor, who supposed himself mortally wounded, abdicated; later he was deported to Mexico. Pio Pico, senior vocal of the diputacion, was elected gefe-politico by that body, but Echandia on account of his military rank, claimed the office and Pico, for the sake of peace, did not insist upon his rights.
Echandia did not long enjoy in peace the office obtained by threats. Captain Augustin V. Zamorano, late secretary of the deported Victoria, raised an army of [p. 50] about one hundred men, some of whom were cholos, or convicts, which under the command of Captain Ibarra marched southward and met no opposition until it reached El Paso de Bartolo, on the San Gabriel river. Here Captain Barrosa, of Echandia's force, with fourteen men and a piece of artillery stopped the onward march of the invaders. Echandia had gathered an army of neophytes, said to have been a thousand strong. On the approach of this body, Ibarra's men retreated to Santa Barbara. The diputacion, which was really the only legal authority in the country, finally effected a compromise between the two rivals. Echandia was to be recognized as militrary chief for the country south of San Gabriel and Zamorano for all territory north of San Fernando, while Pico, who by virtue of his rank as senior-vocal, was the lawful governor was left without jurisdiction. After this adjustment there was peace.
On January 14th, 1833, José Figueroa, "gobernador proprietario" of Alta California by appointment of the Supreme government of Mexico, arrived at Monterey. Zamorano at once turned over to him whatever authority he had and Echandia did the same. Figueroa was Mexican born, of Aztec descent, and is regarded as one of the ablest and most efficient of our Mexican governors. He instituted a policy of concilation and became very popular with the people. He inaugurated a number of reforms, especially in the treatmento of the neophytes and in his attention to the conditions of secularization, which took place during his term of office. Antoher important event of this time was the arrival of the Hijar colonists.
In 1833, Jose Maria Hijar, a Mexican gentleman of considerable property, aided by Jose Maria Padres, set about organizing a scheme for the founding of an extensive colony in California. Each settler was promised a ranch and was to receive rations to the amount of four reales per day with a certain amount of live stock and tools. All to be repaid later from the products of the farm. A corporation known as the "Compania Cosmopolitana" was organized for the purpose of buying vessels and carrying on a shipping business between Mexico and California. About 250 colonists were recruited and left the City of Mexico for San Blas where they wer to be given free passage. One of the vessels bringing them landed at San Diego, September 1st, 1834, and the other reached Monterey, September 25th.
Hijar had succeeded in securing an appointment as gefe-politico; but after his departure for California, President Santa Anna countermanded the order and sent a courier overland by the way of Sonora with an order to Figueroa not to give up the governorship. By one of the most remarkable rides in history, the courier reached Monterey before Hijar, and delivered his message to Governor Figueroa. Hijar, on his arrival at the capital found himself shorn of all authority. Part of the scheme of Hijar and Padres was the sub-division of the mission property among themselves and their colonists. But the revoca- [p. 51] tion of his commission deprived him of his power to enforce his plans. An attempt was made to form a settlement at San Francisco Solano, but was not successful and many of the colonists returned to Mexico, while the remainder were scattered about the territory. Hijar and Padres were accused of instigating a plot to overthrow Figueroa and seize the mission property. They were shipped out of the country and thus ended in disaster to the promoters the first California colonization scheme.
The missions had been founded by Spain for the purpose of converting the Indians to the "holy faith" and transforming them into citizens. The natives residing between the Coast Range and the ocean from San Diego to San Francisco had been gathered into the different mission establishments, each of which held in possession, in trust, for its neophyte retainers, large areas of the most fertile lands in the territory. This absorbtion of the public domain by the missions prevented the colonization of the country by white settlers.
The first decree of secularization was passed by the Spanish Cortes in 1831; but Spain was then engaged in a death struggle with her American colonies and she had neither power nor opportunity to enforce it. In July, 1830, the territorial diputacion adopted a plan of secularization formulated by Echandia in 1828; but before it could be carried out, he was superseded by Victoria who was a friend of the padres and strongly opposed to secularization. Governor Figueroa was instructed to examine into the condition of the neophytes and report upon the best method of bringing about a gradual emancipation of the Indians from missionary rule. He visited some of the older missions himself and, after careful study, was convinced that any general measure of secularization would be disastrous to the neophytes. A few might be given their liberty and entrusted with prooerty; but the great mass of them were incapable of self-government or self support.
In the meantime, the Mexican Congress, without waiting for the information from Figueroa as to the advisability of the step, ordered the immediate emancipation of the neophytes. August 17th, 1833, a decree was passed ordering the secularization of all the missions. It was provided that each mission should constitute a parish, served by a priest, or curate, who should be paid a salary. The Franciscans and Dominicans who had taken the oath of allegience to the republic were to return to their colleges or monasteries; while those who refused to take the oath of allegiance were to quit the country,. The expense of putting the decree into operation was to be paid out of the "Pious Fund." The Pious Fund of California was made up of contributions for the founding and maintenance of missions in the Californias. It was begun for the benefit of the missions of Lower California, in 1697, and increased until it amounted to one and a half million dollars, in 1842. It was confiscated by the Mexican government; but after long litigation the money was finally awarded to the Catholic church of California by the Hague Tribuanal of 1902.
[p. 52] Figueroa and the territorial diputacion, under instructions from the Supreme Government, June 31, 1834, adopted a plan for the secularization of the missions and the colonization of the neophytes into pueblos. Each head of a family was to receive from the mission lands a lot not more than 500 nor less than 100 varas square. One half of the cattle and one half of the farming implements and seed grains were to be diviided pro rata among those receiving lands for cultivation. Out of the proceeds of the remaining property which was to be placed under a major domo, the salaries of the administrator and the priest in charge of the church were to be paid. No one could sell or incumber his land or slaughter cattle-except for subsistence. The government of the Indian pueblo was to be administered the same as that of the other pueblos in the territory. Before the plan of the diputacion had been promulgated, Figueroa had experimented with the neophytes of the San Juan Capistrano mission and a pueblo had been organized there. For a time it promised to be a success but ended in a failure.
For years the threat of secularization had hung over the missions, but heretofore something had always occurred to avert it. When it became evident that the blow would fall, the missionaries determined to save something for themselves. There were, on the various mission ranges, in 1833, nearly half a million head of cattle. San Gabriel, the richest of the missions had over fifty thousand head. Thousands of these were slaughtered on shares for their hides alone and the carcasses left on the ground to rot. So terrible was the stench arising that the ayuntamiento of Los Angeles, in 1834, passed an ordinance compelling every one slaughtering cattle for the hides to cremate the carcasses. The disputacion finally issued a reglamento prohibiting the wholesale destruction of the mission cattle. What remained of the mission property was inventoried by commissioners appointed by the governor and a certain portion distributed to the Indians of the pueblo into which the missions had been converted. The property was soon wasted; for the Indian was improvident and indolent and took no thought for the morrow. His property soon passed out of his hands and he became virtually the slave of the white man.
Governor Figueroa died at San Juan Bautista, September 29, 1835 and was buried in the mission church at Santa Barbara, with much ceremony. He was called the "Benefactor of California." Before his death, he had resigned his political command to José Castro, primer-vocal of the disputacion, who held the office for four months. By order of the Supreme Government, he delivered it over to Col. Nicholas Guiterrez, who held the military command of the territory, until the arrival in May, 1836, of Mariano Chico, the regularly appointed "gobernador proprietario." Chico was a man of inordinate self-conceit and of but little common sense. He very soon secured the ill-will of the Californians. Shortly before his arrival a vigilance committee, or as it was called by its organizers, "Junta Defensora de la Seguridad Publica," the first ever formed [p. 53] in the territory, had taken from the legal authorities at Los Angeles, two criminals, under arrest for the murder of the woman's husband, and had executed them by shooting them to death. This violation of law greatly enraged Governor Chico and one of his first acts on taking office was to sentd Col. Guiterrez with troops to Los Angeles to punish the vigilantes. Victor Prudon, the presdent of the Junta Defensora, Manuel Argaza, the secretary, and Francisco Aranjo, the military officer who had commanded the members of the Junta, were arrested and committed to prison until such time as the governor could come to Los Angeles and try them. He came in June and after heaping abuse and threats upon them, finally pardoned the three leaders of the "Defenders of Public Security." Then he quarreled with Manuel Requena, the alcalde of Los Angeles, who had opposed the vigilantes, and threatened to imprison him. He returned to Monterey where he was soon afterward involved in a disgraceful scandal which ended in his placing the alcalde of that town under arrest. The people, disgusted with him, arose en mass assuming a threatening attitude. Alarmed for his safety, Chico took passage for Mexico and California was rid of him, after three months of his rule. Before his departure he turned over the political and military command of the territory to Col. Gutierrez.
[p. 53 Mexican Custom House, Monterey, p. 53, 1908a, 1908e ]
Guiterrez, like Chico, was a man of violent temper. It was not long before he was involved in a quarrel that eventually put an end to his official career. In his investigation of governmental affairs at Monterey, he charged fraud against Angel Ramirez, the administrator, and Juan Bautista Alvarado, the auditor, of the custom house. Volleys of words were fired by both sides adn Gutierrez threatened to put th two officials in irons. This was an insult that Alvarado, young, proud and hot-blooded, could not endure in silence, He left the capital and with José Castro, at San Juan, began preparation for a revolt against the governor. His quarrel with Gutierrez was not the sole cause of his fomenting a revolution. He was president of the diputacion and the governor had treated that body with disrespect, or at least, the members, of whom Castro was one, so claimed. General Vallejo was invited to take command of the revolutionary movement but, while he sympathized with the cause, he did not enlist in it.
[p. 54] News of the projected uprising spread rapidly. Castro and Alvarado without much effort soon collected an army of seventy-five Californians. They also secured the services of an auxillary force of twenty-five Americans-hunters and trappers-under the command of Graham, a backwoodsman from Tennessee. With this force they marched to Monterey, and by a strategetic [sic] movement captured the castillo. The revolutionists demanded the surrender of the presidio and the arms. Upon the refusal of the governor a shot from the cannon of the castillo crashed through the roof of the comandante's house and scattered Gutierrez and his staff. This-and the desertion of most of his soldiers-brought the governor to terms. November 5, 1836, he surrendered the presidio and resigned his office. With about seventy of his adherents, he was placed on board a vessel in the harbor and a few days later departed for Mexico.
[p.54, José Antonio Carrillo, p. 54, 1908a, 1908e,]
The Mexican governor having been expelled, the diputacion, which was composed of hijos del pais, was called together and a plan for the independence of California was formulated. This plan declared that "California is erected into a free and sovereign state, establishing a congress which shall pass all special laws of the country, also assume the other necessary supreme powers." The diputacion issued a declaration of independence, which arraigned the mother country, Mexico, for sins of commission and omission; and Castro promulgated a pronunciamento ending with a "Viva for El Estado Libre y Soberano de Alta California." (The Free and Sovereign State of Alta California.) Amid the vivas and the pronunciamentos, with the beating of drums and the roar of cannnon, the state of Alta California was launched on the political sea. The revoluntioists soon found that it was easy enough to declare the state free; but quite another matter to make it free.
For years there had been a growing jealousy between northern and southern California. Los Angeles, through the efforts of José Antonio Carrillo had, by the decree of the Mexican congess in May, 1835, been raised to the dignity of a city and made capital of the territory. In the movement [p. 55] to make California a free and independent state, the Angelenos recognized an attempt to deprive their city of its honor. Although as bitterly opposed to Mexican governors and as actively engaged in formenting revolution against them as the people of Monterey, they chose at this time to profess loyalty to the mother country. They opposed the Monterey plan of government and formulated one of their own, in which they declared that California was not free and that they would obey the laws of the Supreme government only.
Alvarado had been made governor by the diputacion and Castro comandante general of the army of the Free State. They determined to suppress the recalcitrant sureños (southerners). They collected an army of eighty natives, obtained the assistance of Graham with his American riflemen and marched southward. The ayuntamiento of Los Angeles had organized an army of 270, partly neophytes, which was stattioned at the Mission San Fernando. Before the northern troops reached the mission, commissioners from Los Angeles met them and a treaty of peace was patched up. Alvarado with his troops arrived in Los Angeles January 23rd, 1837, and was received with expressions of friendship. An extraordinary meeting of the ayuntamiento was called; Pio Pico expressed the great pleasure it gave him to see a "hijo del pais" in office and Antonio Osio, one of the most belligerent of the southerners, declared that, "sooner than again submit to a Mexican governor, or dictator, he would flee to the forest and be devoured by wild beasts." Alvarado made a conciliatory speech and an agreement was entered into to support the "Monterey plan," with Alvarado as governor pro tempore, until the Supreme government should decide the question. Quiet reigned in the south for a few months. Then San Diego formulated a plan of government and the standard of revolt was again raised. The San Diego "plan" restored California to allegiance to the Supreme government and the officials at San Diego and Los Angeles took the oath to obey the constitution of 1836; this , in their opinion, absolved them from obedience to Juan Bautista Alvarado and his "Free State."
In October came the news that Carlos Carrillo of Santa Barbara had been appointed governor by the Supreme government. Then consternation seized the "Free State" men of the north and the sureños of Los Angeles went wild with joy. They invited Carrillo to make Los Angeles his capital-an invitation which he accepted. December 6th was set for his inauguration "dressed as decent as possible." A grand ball was held in the governor's palacio-the house of widow Josefa Alvarado, the finest in the city. Cannon boomed on the plaza, bonfires blazed in the streets and the city was illuminated for three nights. Los Angeles was at last a real capital and had a governor all to herself.
Alvarado and Castro, with an army, came down from the north determined [p. 56] to subjugate the troublesome southerners. A battle was fought at San Buenaventura. For two days cannon volleyed and thundered-at intervals. One man was killed and several mustangs died for their country. The "sureños" were defeated and their leaders captured and sent as prisoners of state to Vallejos' bastille at Sonoma. Los Angeles, Carrillo's capital, was captured by Alvarado. Carrillo rallied his demoralized army at Las Flores. Another battle was fought-or rather a few shots were fired at long range-which hurt no one. Car[r]illo surrendered and was sent home to his wife at Santa Barbara-who became surety for his future good behavior. Alvarado was now the acknowledged governor of El Estado Libre de Alta California; bu the "Free State" had ceased to exist. Months before Alvarado had made his peace with the Supreme government by taking the oath of allegiance to Mexico, thus restoring California to the rule of the mother country. In November, 1838, Alvarado received his formal appointment as "gobernador interino" of California, or rather of the Californias; for under the new constitution creating twenty-four departments instead of states, the two Californias constituted one department.
In the internecine wars and in their revolts against the Mexican governors, the Californians invoked the aid of a power that would not down at their bidding-that was the assistance of the foreigners. Zamorano in his contest with Echandia was the first to enlist the foreign contingent. Next Alvarado secured the offices of Graham and his riflemen to help in the expulsion of Gutierrez. In his invasion of the south he and Castro again called in the foreign element headed by Graham and Coppinger. Indeed the fear of the American riflemen, who made up the larger part of Graham's force, was the most potent factor in bringing the south to terms. These hunters and trappers, with their long Kentucky rifles, shot to kill and any battle in which they took part would not be a bloodless affair.
After Alvarado had been confirmed in his office, he would gladly have rid himself of his allies. But they would not be shaken off and were importunate in their demands for the recognition of their services. There were rumors that the foreigners were plotting to overthrow the government and revolutionize California, as had already been done in Texas. Alvarado issued secret orders to arrest a number of foreigners whom he had reason to fear. About one hundred were arrested during the month of April, 1840, and forty-seven were sent as prisoners in irons to San Blas. The others were released. The prisoners, who were about equally divided in nationality between American and Englishmen, were confined in prison in Tepic. Here the British consul, Barron, was instrumental in securing their release-the American consul being absent. The Mexican government paid them damages for their imprisonment and furnished those who had a legal right to residence in California with transpor- [p. 57] tation to Monterey, where they landed in July, 1841, better dressed and with more money than when they were sent away.
An important event during Alvarado's rule was the capture of Monterey, October 19th, 1842, by Commodore Thomas ap Catesby Jones, commander of the United States forces of the Pacific. Jones, who was crusing in the south Pacific, learning that Admiral Thomas, in command of the English squadron of the Pacific, had sailed out of Callao, under sealed orders, suspected that the Admiral's orders were to seize California. Knowing that war was imminent between Mexico and the United States, Jones determined to take possession of California for the United States, if he could reach it before the English admiral did. Crowding on all sail, he arrived at Monterey October 19th and immediately demanded the surrender of California, both Upper and Lower, to the United States government. He gave Governor Alvarado until nine o'clock on the morning of the 20th to decide on his course. Alvarado had already been superseded by Micheltorena, who was then somewhere in the neighborhood of Los Angeles, and at first decided to shirk the responsibility of surrender by leaving the town; but he was dissuaded from this step. The terms were agreed upon and at 10 o'clock the next morning 150 sailors and marines disembarked, took possession of the fort, lowered the Mexican flag and raised the American colors. The officers and soldiers of the California government were discharged and their guns and arms taken into possession by the United States troops, and carried into the fort. On the 21st, at four p.m., the flags again changed places-the fort and arms were restored to their former claimants. Commodore Jones had learned from some Mexican newspapers found in the captured fort that war did not yet exist between the two republics.
[p. 58] Chapter VII. Closing Years of Mexican Era. p. 58
For some time ill feeling had been growing between Governor Alvarado and the comandante general, M.G. Vallejo. Each had sent commissions to the Supreme government to present his side of the quarrel. The Supreme government finally decided to combine the civil and military offices in the person of a Mexican officer, and on January 22nd, 1842, Manuel Micheltorena, who had seen service with the Santa Anna in Texas, was appointed to this office. He was to be provided with a sufficient number of troops to prevent the intrusion of foreigners-particularly Americans-into California. The large force promised him finally dwindled down to 300 convicts, known as cholos, who were released from Mexican prisons on condition that they serve in the army.
Governor Micheltorena had landed with his ragged cholos at San Diego, in August, and was leisurely marching northward to the capital. On the night of October 24th, he arrived at a point twenty miles north of San Fernando when news reached him of the capture of Monterey by Commodore Jones. The valiant commander and his cholos retreated to San Fernando where they remained until they learned of the restoration of Monterey to the Californians. Then they fell back to Los Angeles. Here, Januaary 20th, 1843, Commodore Jones had a conference with the governor who made some exorbitant demands, among others that the United States government should pay $15,000 to Mexico for the expense incurred in the general alarm and for a set of musical instruments lost in the retreat, and also replace 1,500 uniforms ruined in the violent march. Commodore Jones did not deign an answer to these ridiculous demands; and Micheltorena did not insist upon them. The conference closed with a grand ball-and all the parties were pacified.
Micheltorena took the oath of office at Los Angeles, December 31st, 1842. Speeches were made, salutes wer fired and the city was illuminated for three nights. With his Falstaffian army, the governor remained at Los Angeles until mid-summer. The Angelenos had, for years, contended with the people of Monterey for the capital and had gone to war to gain it. Now that they had [p. 59] the coveted prize, they would gladly have parted with it, by so doing, they could rid themselves of Micheltorena's thieving soldiers. The men were not altogether to blame as their pay was long in arrears and they received but scant supplies of clothing or rations. It was a case of steal, or starve-and they stole.
In August Micheltorena and his cholo contingent reached Monterey. The Californians did not welcome the Mexican governor very heartily.
While indolent and vacillating, he was a man of considerable ability, and began his rule with the intention of improving conditions in California. Education had been sadly neglected both under Spanish and Mexican domination. One of his first attempts was to establish a public school system. Five hundred dollars was appropriated from the public funds for the maintenance of schools in each of the larger towns and arrangements were made for the opening of several schools for girls. Heretofore the public schools had been open only to boys. What was left of the mission estates was restored to the Padres and an earnest effort was made to reconcile sectional animosity, but with all of his efforts to be just and better the condition of California, there was still an undercurrent of hostility to him. Part of this was due to the thieving of his convict soldiers; but a more potent cause was the ambition of certain "hijos del pais" to rule the territory. They blamed the governor for retaining his cholos in the country, claiming that they were kept for the purpose of subjugating, or terrorizing, the natives.
The appointment of Micheltorena to fill both the civil and military offices was a bitter disappointment to Alvarado and Vallejo. They were not long in discovering that much as they hated each other, they hated the Mexican worse. They buried the hatchet and combined with Castro to do what the trio had done before-drive the Mexican governor out of the country. The depredations of the cholos had so embittered the people that they were ready to join the standard of anyone who would head a revolution. On November 15th, 1844, a meeting of the leaders of the dissatisfied was held at Alvarado's Rancho de Aliso, and a pronounciamento against Micheltorena was issued.
Alvarado and Castro headed a body of revolutionists, numbering about thirty, who moved northward to San José, where they were largely reinforced. Micheltorena set out in pursuit of them; after some maneuvering, a treaty was finally effected between the belligerents. Micheltorena pledged his word of honor to send back to Mexico, within three months, his vicious soldiers and officers; while Alvarado and Castro, on their part, agreed to go into winter quarters at San José, with their troops, who were to constitute the military force of the territory after the departure of the convict soldiers. Micheltorena returned to Monterey, but the censure of his officers for the surrender caused him to break his word and secretly plot for the capture of the insurgents. He [p. 60] secured the aid of Captain John A. Sutter, a Swiss gentleman, who had an establishment at New Helvcetia [sic], now Sacramento, and a company of Indians drilled in military maneuvers and the use of arms. Besides his Indians, Sutter secured for Micheltorena the services of a number of foreigners, mostly Americans. Alvarado and Castro learned of the perfidy of Micheltorena through the capture of one of his messengers with a letter to Sutter. Not being prepared to sustain an attack from the combined forces of Micheltorena and Sutter, they hurriedly broke camp at San José and with a portion of their force marched to Los Angeles where they arrived, January, 21st, 1845. They endeavored to fire the southern heart against the governor, but the old animosity was as strong as ever and the southerners regarded with suspicion the friendly advances of their old enemies. The Pico brothers were finally won over and Pio Pico, who was primer-vocal, of the "junta departmental" or assembly, called that body together, to meet at Los Angeles, on January 28th. It declared Micheltorena a traitor to the country who must be deposed.
Sutter with his forces numbering about two hundred men, one hundred of whom were Indians, joined Micheltorena at Salinas early in January. The combined forces-about four hundred-began a leisurely march to the south. The fear of a raid by Micheltorena's cholos and Sutter's Indians had stimulated recruiting in the south, and Castro and Pico soon found themselves at the head of about four hundred men. A commission from Los Angeles met the governor at Santa Barbara on February 7th with propositions for a settlement of the difficulty. He treated the commission with scant respect and offered but one condition-unconditional surrender of the rebels.
A week later the departmental assembly met at Los Angeles and passed resolutions deposing Micheltorena and appointing Pio Pico temporary governor. In the meantime, disgusted with Micheltorena's slow movements, about half of the foreigners in his army deserted. Micheltorena's army moving down by way of Encinas, and Castro's forces advancing from Los Angeles, met on the Cahuenga plain. Artillery firing began at long range and thus continued all day. The foreigners in the respective armies got together in a ravine during the fight and agreed to let the Mexicans and Californians settle their dispute in their own way.
Toward evening, Micheltorena undertook to make a flank movement and marched his troops to the eastward, evidently intending to follow the river down to the city. Castro and Alvarado moved back through the Cahuenga Pass and again encountered the opposing force at the Verdugo rancho. A few cannon shots were fired when Micheltorena displayed a white flag in token of surrender. Terms of capitulation were drawn up by which he and his convict army were to be sent back to Mexico. Pio Pico was recognized as temporary governor and Castro was made commadante general of the military force. As [p. 61] a sedatove to his military pride, Micheltorena was granted permission to march his army to San Pedro with all the honors of war, taking with them their three pieces of artillery, but the guns were to be given up at the embarcadero. The governor and his soldiers were sent to Monterey and there, joined by the garrison that had been stationed at the capital, all were sent to San Blas, Mexico. Captain Sutter was taken prisoner during the battle and was held under arrest for some time after the departure of Micheltorena. He was at length released and allowed to return with his Indians, by way of Tejon Pass and the Tulares, to New Helvetia.
Pio Pico, by virtue of his position as senior vocal of the assembly, became governor, and Castro, in accordance with the treaty of Cahuenga, was comandante general. Alvarado was made administrator of the custom house in Monterey. Thus the "hijos del pais" were once again in power and the factional fight between the "uppers" and the "lowers" was once more declared off. Pico established his government at Los Angeles and that "ciudad," ten years afer the Mexican congress had decreed it the capital, became the seat of government. Castro established his military headquarters at Monterey and José Antonio Carrillo, one of the leaders of the "lowers," was made comandante of the military in the south. Pico began his rule with a desire to benefit the territory. He might have succeeded, had he been able to control the discordant factions.
As has been previously stated, Micheltorena restored, as far as possible, the mission property to the Padres; but it was impossible to establish the old order-even on a small scale. The few Indians remaining at the missons were unmanageable. Through the neglect or incompetency of the administradors, debts had been incurred and creditors were importune. The Padres in charge were mostly old men, unable to cope with the difficulties that beset them on every side. Pico, with the concurrence of the junta, decided to make a change in the mission policy. In June, 1845, he issued a decree, warning the Indians at San Rafael, Soledad, San Miguel and Purisima to return to their respective missions. Failing to do so, they were to be declared vagrants and punished as such. At Carmel, San Juan Bautista, San Juan Capistrano and Solano, where pueblos had been established, the church and the curate's home were to be reserved and the balance of the property sold at auction to pay the debts of the missions. The abandoned missions and the mission pueblos before mentioned were sold in December, 1845, and ten of the missions were rented for a term of nine years. The proceeds of the sale were to be used for the benefit of the Indians and the supoort of the Padres. In those rented, the Indians were at libety to remain in the service of the lessees. A portion of the proceeds were to be used for the support of religious services. The change brought no improvement in the conditions of the neophytes. They sank still lower in degradation, while the mis- [p. 62] sions, deprived of income and of power, ceased to exist. Notwithstanding Pico's efforts to conciliate the discordant elements, it soon became evident that the old spirit of turbulence was still dominant. The first insurrectionary movement originated with José Antonio Carillo, Pico's own brother-in-law. This was suppressed and Carillo and Vareles, one of his auxiliaries, were shipped to Mexico for trial; but were released and returned to California. Castro ignored Pico in military affairs and soon a bitter quarrel was on between the gefe politico and the comandante general.
For a number of years there had been a steady influx of foreigners-mostly Americans. Many of them had married into prominent families and had come by nationalization, Mexican citizens. In 1841, the first train of immigrants arrived in California overland. The immigration over the plains continued to increase after this. The leading Californians saw that it was their manifest destiny to become a territory of the United States. Texas had been wrested from Mexico by the same foreign element that was now invading California. Early in 1846, Castro called a junta of his officers at Monterey. This council issued a pronunciamento declaring hostility to the United States and the members pledged themselves to defend the honor of the Mexican nation against the perfidious attacks of its rivals-the North Americans. In this council, Pico had been ignored and the hostile feelings between the political and military chiefs grew more bitter. Pico had been appointed constitutional governor by President Herrera and, April 18th, 1846, in the presence of the territorial assumbly and a large concourse of people gathered at Los Angeles, he took the oath of office.
[p. 62 Lieut. John C. Fremont, 1908e]
Castro and his associates were soon to be given an opportunity to test their courage in the defense of Mexican honor against the attacks of the perfidious North Americans. Lieutenant John C. Fremont, who had previously led two expeditions through the Rocky mountains, Oregon and California, in January, 1846, arrived in California. His company numbered sixty-two men, scientists, guides and servants. These he left encamped in the Tulare county, east of the coast range, while he repaired to Monterey to secure some needed supplies and to explain his presence. As the expedition was scientific in its object and Fremont expressed his intention of proceeding to Oregon as soon as his men were rested and recruited, Castro made no objection to his remaining in California during the winter. But when, a few weeks later, the whole force of men marched into the Salinas valley, they were ordered to leave the country at once. [p. 63] Instead of leaving, Fremont marched his men to Gabilan Peak, about thirty miles from Monterey, where he raised the stars and stripes and proceeded to fortify his camp. Castro marshalled his force on the plains below out of range of Fremont's men. After holding the fort on Gabilan Peak two days, Fremont, on the night of March 9th, abandoned it and leisurely proceeded northward by way of the San Joaquin valley to Sutter's Fort and from there, after a short stop, to Lassen's Rancho on Deer Creek, where he remained until April 14th. He then resumed his march toward the Oregon line.
On May 5th, he was encamped near Klamath Lake when Samuel Neal and William Sigler, two settlers of the Sacramento valley, rode into his camp and informed him that a United States officer, bearing dispatches, was endeavoring to overtake him. The officer had but a small escort and the Indians being hostile, he was in great danger. Fremont took nine of his men and the two messengers and hurried to the relief of the officer. The parties met and encamped on the bank of a creek. About midnight the Indians attacked the camp, killing three of Fremont's men and losing their own chief. The dispatch bearer proved to be Lieut. Archibald H. Gillespie, of the U.S. Navy. He had left Washington in November, 1845, with instructions from the government; had crossed Mexico, disguised as a merchant, and from San Blas had taken passage to Honolulu and thence reached Monterey, April 17th. Fremont, with his entire force, after punishing the Klamath Indians for their treachery, returned to Sutter's Fort, where Lieut. Gillespie, who had gone ahead, met them with supplies procured from San Francisco through Captain Montgomery of the Portsmouth. The substance of the dispatches sent to Fremont from Secretary of State Buchanan was to prevent the ocuupation of California by any European power and in the event of war with Mexico to take possession of the country for the United States. It was well known that England had designs on California and it was partly to circumvent these and partly to warn Fremont that war with Mexico was pending that the dispatches had been sent. The report that a large immigration was on its way to California from the United States was, no doubt, the cause of the hostility of the authorities to Fremont and to the recently arrived immigrants. There were rumors that Castro was organizing a force to drive the foreign settlers out of the country. Many Americans were in California without authority under the Mexican laws.
Believing themselves in danger and regarding Fremont as their protector, a number of settlers repaired to his camp. Their first aggressive act was the capture of 250 horses that were being moved by Lieut. de Arce and fourteen men, from the north side of the bay to Castro's camp at Santa Clara. A party of twelve Americans, under Ezekiel Merritt, captured the horses and made prisoners of the escort., who were brought into Fremont's camp and there released. Hostilities having been begun, it became necessary for the settlers to [p. 64] widen the breach so as to provoke retaliation on the part of the Californians rather than be punished as horse thieves. The next move was to seize the military post and the principal men of Sonoma. On the morning of June 11th, twenty men under command of Merritt, armed with pistols and rifles, and mounted on fresh horse, set out from Fremont's camp on Bear Creek for Sonoma. On the way their number were recruited to thirty-two. On the morning of the 14th, about daybreak, they surrounded the town and took Gen. M.G. Vallejo, Captain Salvador Vallejo, and Lieut. Col. Victor Prudon, prisoners. There seems to have been no private soldiers at Sonoma-all officers. The castillo, or fort, contained about a dozen rusty old cannon and two hundered and fifty muskets. Gen. Vallejo and his officers, as prisoners of war, gave their word of honor not to take up arms against the revolutionists, on a guarantee from their captain to respect the lives and property of the prisoners, their families and the residents of the jurisdiction. This guarantee, signed by Merritt, Semple, Fallon and Kelsey, was given in writing. The prisoners, although given their parole, were taken to Sutter's Fort, by a guard. Twenty-four men remained at the fort. The leaders of the party having gone with the prisoners, W.B. Ide, who had come to the front on account of a speech he made advocating a movement to make the country independent, was chosen commander.
Ide immediately set about formulating a declaration of independence, and William Todd, one of his men, having procured a piece of manta, or coarse cotton cloth about two yards long, set ot work to fashion a flag for the new republic. Todd, assisted by some others, painted a star in the upper corner and in the center a figure supposed to represent a bear, but which the natives call a "cochina" (pig). Below these figures he painted in large letters, "California Republic." Along the lower edge of the flag was stitched a strip of red woolen cloth said to have been a part of a red woolen petticoat. When completed the famous "Bear Flag" of California was run up on the flagstaff where the Mexican colors had formerly floated. The cannons and muskets were loaded, guards posted, military discipline established, and the California Republic duly inaugurated. On June 18th, the same day that Ide isssued his proclamation, Thomas Cowie adn George Fowler, two of Ide's men, volunteered to go to Fitch's ranch to procure a keg of powder from Mose Carson. On the way hey were captured by a band of Californians under Juan Padilla and brutally murdered. The news of this outrage reached Sonoma and later a report that Todd, who had been sent to Bodega with a message, had been captured. Captain W. L. Ford, with a force of twenty-three men, hastily set out from Sonoma to capture Padilla. At Olampali Rancho, Captain Ford unexpectedly came upon the combined forces of Captain de la Torre and Padilla, numbering eighty-three men. The Americans fell back into a willow thicket. The Californians, supposing that they wer retreating, charged upon them but were met with a villey [p. 65] of rifle balls that some reports say killed eight men. Todd, while the fight was going on, made his escape and joined Ford's men, who fell back to Sonomoa.
Fremont, who had been camped at the Buttes, having learned of Ide's attempt to establish a Pacific Republic and that Castro would not attack them to rescue the prisoners, but was gathering a force to recapture Sonoma, broke up his camp and moved down to New Helvetia, where he put his prisoners in the fort under guard.
[p. 65 Commodore Jno. D. Sloat, 1908e, p. 65.]
On June 23rd, Fremont hastened to Sonoma with a force of seventy-two mounted riflemen. The Americans, including Fremont's men, now numbered two hundred. Fremont and Ford with a force of 135 men, started out to hunt Captain de la Torre, who was in command of the Californians north of the bay. Torre, it is claimed, wrote letters stating that Castro was about to attack Sonoma with a large force. These were placed in the boots of three of his men, who allowed themselves to be captured. The stratagem succeeded-Fremont and Ford hurried back to Sonoma, but the three Californians were shot without trial. Authorities differ as to this story. If such letters were captured, they were not preserved, and it is more probable that the prisoners, Berryessa and the two de Haro boys, were shot in retaliation for the murder of Cowie and Fowler. Whether from the captured letters, or from some other source, Fremont believed that Castro's force was north of the bay. Castro, however, had not left Santa Clara. Captain de la Torre, taking advantage of the absence of his pursuers, crossed the bay at Sausalito and joined Castro. Fremont found himself deceived, returned to the pursuit, but he was too late-the game had escaped and he marched back to Sonoma, where he arrived July 3rd. The Fourth of July was celebrated with great eclat by the "Bears." Wine, gunpowder, eloquence and a great ball stirred up all the latent patriotism of the revolutionists. The "California Republic" reached the zenith of its power that day. The next day it collapsed. Ide was deposed by a vote of the Bears and Fremont was chosen to head the movement for independence.
On the 7th of July, Commodore Sloat, raised the Stars and Stripes in Monte- [p. 66] rey and took possession of the country in the name of the United States. He had arrived on the Savannah on the 2nd from Mazatlan, where he heard rumors of hostilities between the United States and Mexico; but not having learned of any formal declaration of war, he was undecided what course to pursue. Having heard of the Bear Flag movement and of Fremont's connection with it, he presumed that Fremont had later information, and finally decided to take possession of the country.
Fremont, on July 6th, leaving Captain Grigsby with fifty men at Sonoma, started with the rest of his battalion, about 130 men, for Sacramento with the intention of making preparations to attack Castro. Captain Montgomery of the Portsmouth had raised the flag at San Francisco; Lieut. Revere arrived at Sonoma on the 9th; the Bear flag was lowered and the Stars and Stripes unfurled. On the 11th the flag was raised over Sutter's Fort and the same day over Bodega. All Northern and Central California was now in possession of the Americans.
For months there had been ill feelings between Governor Pico and the commandante-general, Castro. Pico had made Los Angeles his capital, while Castro had established his headquarters at Monterey. Their quarrel was the old sectional jealousy of the north and the south-and their respective sections supported them in their dispute. Castro was accused of plotting to overthrow the government. At the time Sloat raised the United States flag at Monterey Pico, with an armed body had reached Santa Barbara, intending to fight Castro, who was at Santa Clara. With a part of his force, Castro retreated southward and joined Pico. They patched up a truce and, uniting their forces, retreated to Los Angeles, where they began preparation to resist the "perfidious North Americans."
The American era of California history, begins with the raising of the flag at Monterey on July 7th, 1846. Within a week after that event all of the territory north of Monterey had been taken possesssion of without opposition. Castro, with a part of his force, had retreated to Los Angeles, and those remaining behind had disbanded and retired to their homes. Fremont had moved his battalion of about 130 men to a camp on the American river above Sutter's Fort. Here he was encamped when, on the 11th of July, a messenger bearing Sloat's proclamation and an American flag reached him. This flag was raised over the fort and saluted with twenty-one guns. Immediately afterward Fremont's battalion began its march to Monterey, where it arrived [p. 67] on the 19th. Fremont had an interview with Commodore Sloat which was not very satisfactory to either. Sloat was inclined to blame Fremont for acting wihout sufficient authority in precipitating hostilities and Fremont was disappointed because Sloat would not endorse his scheme of making a campaign against Castro.
[p. 67 Commodore R.F. Stockton, 1908e, p. 67]
On the 15th of July Commodore Stockton, on the Congress, arrived at Monterey from Honolulu and reported to Commodore Sloat for duty. Sloat was an old man, having entered the Navy in 1800; his health was failing and he was anxious to retire from active service. He made Stockton commander-in-chief of all the land forces in California. Stockton on taking command, made Fremont a major and Gillispie a captain. On July 26th, the battalion was loaded on the Cyane, which sailed the next day for San Diego. Sloat, after transferring the command of the Pacific squadron to Stockton, sailed on July 29th, on board the Levant for home.
Commodore Stockton, on assuming command, issued a proclamation in which he arraigned the Mexican government for beginning hostilities against the United States. He was very severe on Gen. Castro, whom he called a usurper, and the Californians for outrages committed on the American settlers. "Three inoffensive Americans," said he, "residents of the country, have been within a few days brutally murdered; and there are no California officers who will arrest and bring the murderers to justice, although it is well known who they are and where they are." He ignored the brutal murder of the three Californians, Berryessa and the two De Haro boys, who were shot down in cold blood by Fremont's men while begging for quarter. Bancroft says of the proclamation, "The paper was made up of falsehood, of irrelevant issues and of bombastic boasting in about equal parts." Commodore Sloat read the proclamation at sea and did not approve of it.
Gen. Pico and Gen. Castro, on their arrival at Los Angeles, immediatelty set to work to organize an army. Every man between fifteen and sixty was summoned for military duty and any Mexican refusing or excusing himself on [p. 68] any pretext was to be treated as a traitor. Those physically unable to do military duty were required to aid with their property. The response to the call of the leaders was not vey enthusiastic; sectional jealousies, quarrels and feuds destroyed, or at least, paralyzed patriotism. The foreign residents who were mostly Americans, secretly sympathixed with the invaders. Money and the munitions of war were scarce. Castro sent a message by two commissioners, Flores and de la Guerra, expressing his willingness to enter into negotiations with Stockton. The commodore showed the messengers scant courtesy and dismissed them with an "insulting threat." Castro and Pico finding it impssible to defend the capital with the small force at their command, determined to quit the country. On the night of August 10th they took their departure; Castro accompanied by his secretary, Francisco Arce, and eighteen men, going by way of the San Gorgonio pass and the Colorado river; Pico by way of San Juan Capistrano and Santa Margarita, to Lower California.
Stockton began his march to Los Angeles on August 11th. On the 13th Major Fremont, with his battalion of 130 mounted men, met him just outside the town and the combined forces entered the capital. The United States flag was raised and possession was taken of the town. The reception of the Americans was not cordial. Some of the better class of citizens had fled from the city, but these in a few days returned to their homes. Fremont's cavalry scoured the country and brought in a number of leading men who had held civil or military office; these were paroled. Stockton, on the 17th, published a much milder proclamation in which he announced himself as commander-in-chief and governor of the territory; he stated that California belonged to the United States and would be governed by military law until a civil government could be established. Captain Gillispie was commissioned by Stockton as commandant of the southern department with headquarters at Los Angeles. He was assigned a garrison of fifty men taken from Fremont's force. On September 29th, Commodore Stockton, with his sailors and marines, returned to their ships at San Pedro and sailed for Monterey. A few days later, Fremont, with the remainder of his battalion, began his march northward for Sutter's fort, where he expected to recruit his force from the immigrants now arriving in the country.
While the combined forces of Stockton and Fremont, numbering about 500 men, had occupied the town, the inhabitants had been quiet and submissive. But with a small force left to keep them in subjection, they soon began to manifest their old turbulent and revolutionary disposition. September 16th, the anniversary of Mexican independence, a number of young men, under the stimulation of wine, and probably more in a spirit of mischief than with any serious intent, [p. 69] made an attack about midnight on Gillispie's headquarters, which were in the old government house. The garrison drove them off with a volley of musketry, in which three men were killed-so Gillispie reported-but the dead were never found. The next day Gillispie ordered the arrest of a number of leading citizens to be held as hostages. He also vigorously enforced military law. In a very short time he had a full-grown Mexican revolution on his hands. Some 300 men underr the leadership of Flores and Serbulo Vareles, besieged his garrison. In the corral of the government house were five or six old cannon that Castro had spiked and abandoned. Gillispie had two of these unspiked and hauled up Fort Hill, where they were mounted. He made cannon balls out of some lead pipe that he found and cartridge covers out of a piece of red flannel captured from a store. The Californians had a brass four-pounder, known as "the Old Woman's gun" because, on the approach of Stockton's army, an old woman by the name of Rocha had buried the gun in her garden; it had been used in firing salutes at church festivals, and the old lady declared that the "gringos" should not have the gun of the church.
While besieged on Fort Hill, Gillispie on September 24th, sent a messenger, Juan Flaco (lean Jean) with dispatches to Stockton asking aid. By one of the most wonderful rides in history, this man, John Brown, reached San Francisco where Stockton had gone from Monterey, six hundred miles distance, in five days. Stockton at once ordered Mervine, commanding the Savannah, to go to the relief of Gillispie. On account of a dense fog, the vessel did not leave San Francisco until October 4th. Gillispie held out bravely for seven days, then capitulated, with honorable terms. On September 30th, with flags flying, drums beating and his two old cannon mounted on carretas, he began his march to San Pedro. On October 7th, Mervine entered the harbor. At 6:30 a.m. of the 8th, he landed a force of 299 men, which included Gillispie's volunteers. A small force of the enemy appeared and Captain Mervine ordered Lieut. Hitchcock, with a reinforcement of eighty men from the vessel, to attack; but the enemy retreated and the detachment returned to the ship. Captain Mervine and his men then started for the pueblo. They took no cannon and had no horses. After a fatiguing tramp through tall mustard and clouds of dust they encamped at the Dominguez rancho. The enemy, under the command of José Antonio Carrillo, and numbering about eighty men, appeared on the foothills and some skirmishing at long range took place. During the night, Flores arrived from the pueblo with a reinforcement of about sixty men and the "old woman's" gun. They opened fire during the night on Mervine's camp with this cannon, but did no damage. The next morning Mervine's men resumed their march and had not proceeded far before they encountered the enemy. The Californians opened fire and Mervine, fearing a charge from their cavalry, formed his troops in a [p. 70] hollow square with their baggage in the center. A running fight ensued; the Californians firing, then dragging the gun back with riatas, loading, and firing again. Mervine, finding he was losing men without injuring the enemy, ordered a retreat. The Californians fired a parting shot or two, but did not pursue the Americans, as they had exhausted their ammunition. Mervine reached San Pedro that evening and went aboard his vessel. His loss was four killed and six wounded. The dead were buried on the Isla de los Muertes, or Deadman's island. The Savannah remained in the harbor and the Californians kept a small detachment at Sepulveda's ranch and another at Cerritos to watch the Americans.
On the 25th Commodore Stockton arrived at San Pedro on the Congress and remained there about a week. Although he had a force of nearly 800 men, he did not deem this sufficient to recapture the capital, as he greatly overestimated the strength of the enemy. On November 1st he sailed for San Diego. At the time of Flores' attack on Gillispie the American garrisons at San Diego and Santa Barbara were driven out of these towns. The force at San Diego went aboard the Stonington, a whale ship lying in the harbor. Lieut. Talbot with ten men was stationed at Santa Barbara. When called upon to surrender, this party fell back into the hills and reached the head of the San Joaquin river, where they obtained food from the Indians; then traveled down the valley, subsisting on the flesh of wild horses and finally, by way of Pacheco's pass, they crossed over to the coast and joined Fremont's battalion at Monterey.
The departmental assembly, having been called together by Flores, met at Los Angeles, October 26th. The members were all from the south. The first business in order was to fill the offices of governor and commandante-general left vacant by the flight of Pico and Castro. It was decided to combine the two offices in one person and José Maria Flores was chosen commander-in-chief and governor ad interim. He took the oath of office November 1st and was really the last Mexican governor of California. Flores and the members of the assembly made some provisions for continuing the war, but their resources were very limited. Their recent successes over the Americans had somewhat encouraged them and they hoped to be able to hold out until reinforcements arrived from Mexico.
Stockton, on his arrival at San Diego, had set to work to organize an expedition against Los Angeles. The Californians had driven the cattle and horses back into the mountains and the Americans found great difficulty in procuring animals. Frequent forays were made into Lower California and horses, cattle and sheep procured. The remnant of Fremont's battalion, after taking from it garrisons for San Diego, Los Angeles and Santa Barbara, had returned to the Sacramento valley in September. Here it was recruited to 160 men, and on October 13th sailed from San Francisco on a merchant vessel, with orders to operate against the rebels in the south; but between Monterey and Santa Barbara they met the Vandalia and learned of Mervine's defeat, and of the impossibility [p. 71] of procuring horses in the lower country. They put about and the battalion landed at Monterey October 28th. Vigorous efforts were at once made to recruit men and horses. A number of immigrants had arrived from the states. These were induced to enlist on the promise of $25 per month pay. Horses were purchased, or where owners refused to sell, were confiscated. A company of Walla Walla Indians were enlisted-these were known as the "Forty Thieves." Sutter's "warriors in bronze" (Indians) were also enrolled for service. In the latter part of November, the recruits were collected at San Juan. They numbered about 450 riflemen and 40 artillerymen, representing many nations and many different kinds of arms, and were divided into ten companies. Fremont had been commissioned as lieutenant-colonel in the regular army and was commander-in-chief of the battalion. While Fremont's officers and men wre engaged in collecting horses, an engagement took place between a detachment numbering about 60 men, under Captain Burroughs and Thompson, and the Californians under Manuel Castro, who had been made commandant of the Californian forces in the north. The Americans had gathered several hundred horses and were taking them to the camp at San Juan. The advance guard, consisting of eight scouts, encountered the Californians near Natividad. They posted themselves in an "encinalito," or grove of little oaks, and a fight ensued. The main body of Americans coming up, a reckless charge was made. Captain Burroughs and four or five others were killed and five or six wounded. The Californians lost about the same number; the result was a drawn battle.
[p. 71 Hon, Thomas O. Larkin, 1908e, p. 71]
The American consul, Thomas O. Larkin, had started for San Francisco and had stopped at Gomez's ranch overnight. A squad of Californians, under Lieut. Chavez, surrounded the house about midnight and made him prisoner; he was held until the close of the war. The only other engagement in the north was the so-called "Battle of Santa Clara", which took place between a force of about 100 Americans under Captains Weber, Marston and Aram, and an equal number of Californians under Francisco Sanchez. Fighting was at long range with artillery and so far as known there were no fatalities on either side.
In the south the garrison at San Diego, after it had remained on the Stonington about ten days, stole a march on the Californians by landing at night and recapturing the town ad one piece of artillery. A whaleboat was sent up to San Pedro with dispatches and an earnest request for reinforcements. It reached San Pedro October 13th. Lieut. Miner and Midshipmen Duvall and Morgan, with 35 sailors of Mervine's force and 15 of Gillispie's volunteers, were sent to [p. 72] reinforce Merritt at San Diego. This force upon arrival set to work to build a fort and mount the cannon taken from the old presidio, Although continually harassed by the Californians, they succeeded in this.
About the first of November, Commodore Stockton arrived at San Diego. He began fortification on the hill and built a fort out of casks filled with earth, on which he mounted guns. The whole work was completed in three weeks. Provisions ran short and frequent forays were made into the surrounding country for supplies. About December 1st word reached Stockton that Gen. Kearney with 100 dragoons was at Warner's pass, about eighty miles from San Diego. Stockton sent a force of fifty men and one piece of artillery, under Captain Gillispie to conduct this force to San Diego. On their return march the entire force was surprised, on the morning of December 6th, by about 90 Californians under Captain Andrés Pico, near the Indian village of San Pasqual. Pico had been sent into that parrt of the country to intercept and capture squads of Americans sent out after horses and cattle. The meeting was a surprise on both sides. the Americans foolishly charged the Californians and in doing so became strung out in a long irregular line. The Californians ralled and charged in turn. The Americans lost in killed, Captains Johnston and Moore, Lieut. Hammond and sixteen dragoons; Captain Gillispie and Gibson and seventeein dragoons were wounded. The Californians escaped with three men slightly wounded. Three of Kearney's wounded died, making the total American death list twenty-one. Less than one-half of Kearney's force were engaged in the battle.
After the engagement, Kearney took position on a barren hill, covered with rocks. The enemy made no attack, but remained in the neighborhood and awaited a favorable opportunity to renew the assault. The night after the attack, Lieut. Godey, Midshipman Beale and Kit Carson managed to pass through the pickets of the enemy and eventually-by differenet routes-reached San Diego with the news of the disaster. On December 9th detachments of sailors and marines, numbering in all about 200, from the Congress and the Portsmouth and under the immediate command of Captain Zielin, began a march to reliieve Gen. Kearney. They marched at night and camped in the chapparal by day. Early in the morning after the second night they reached Kearney's camp, taking him by surprise. Codey, who had been sent ahead to inform Kearney of the relief had been captured by the Californians. Gen. Kearney had destroyed all of his baggage and camp equipment, saddles, bridles, clothing, etc., preparatory to forcing his way through the enemy's lines. But the enemy disappeared on the arrival of reinforcements, and Gen. Kearney and the relief expedition reached San Diego after a march of two days.
It is necessary to explain how Gen. Kearney came to be in California with so small a force. In June, 1846, Gen. Stephen W. Kearney, commander of the Army of the West, left Fort Leavenworth with a force of regulars and volunteers to take possession of New Mexico. The conquest of that territory was [p. 73] accomplished withot a battle. Under orders from the War Department, Kearney began his march to California with a part of his force, in order to co-operate with the naval force already there. Near Socorro, New Mexico, October 16th, he met Kit Carson with an escort of fifteen men, en route from Los Angeles to Washington with dispatches from Commander Stockton, giving a report of the conquest of California. Gen. Kearney selected 120 men from his force, sent the remainder back to Santa Fe, and compelled Carson to turn back as his guide. After a toilsome journey across the arid plains of Arizona and the Colorado desert, they reached the Indian village where the engagement took place, destitute of provisions and with men and horses worn out.
Stockton had been actively pushing preparation for his expedition against Los Angeles. His force now numbered 600 men, mostly sailors and marines; but he had been drilling them in military evolutions on land. On the 19th of December this army started on its march for the capital. Gen. Kearney ws made second in command. The baggage and artillery was hauled on carretas, bu the oxen being ill-fed and unused to long journeys, gave out on the way and the marines had to assist in dragging the carts. Near San Juan Capistrano, a commission, bearing a flag of truce, met Stockton with proposals from Gov. Flores, asking for a conference. Stockton replied that he knew no "Gov. Flores", that he (Stockton) was governor of California. "He knew a rebel by the name of Flores and if the people of California would give him up, he would treat with them." The embassy replied that they preferred death to surrender under such terms. On January 8th, 1847, Stockton's army encountered the Californians at El Paso de Bartolo on the San Gabriel river and a battle was fought. The Californians had planted four pieces of artillery on the bluff above the river with the design of preventing the Americans from crossing. In the face of the artillery fire, the Americans crossed the river, dragging with them through the quicksands two nine-pounders and four smaller guns. They placed their guns on a battery on the river bank and opened fire on the Californians with such telling effect that one of their guns was disabled and the gunners were driven away from the others. The California cavalry made a charge on the rear, but were repulsed by Gillispie's riflemen. The Americans charged the California center, advanced their artillery in battery. The enemy was driven from the heights, but succeeded in taking their artillery with them. The battle lasted about one and a half hours, the Americans loising two killed and eight wounded. The loss of the Californians was about the same. The Americans encamped on the battlefield while the Californians fell back towards the city and camped in plain view of their opponents; but they moved their camp during the night.
Stockton resumed his march on the morning of the 9th, moving in a northwesterly direction across the plains. The Californians had posted themselves in Cañada de los Alisos (Canyon of Sycamores) near the main road. As the American column appeared they opened fire with their artillery at long range and [p. 74] continued it for several hours. Finally the Californians, concentrating all their efforts into one grand charge, dashed down upon the American column. A volley from the rifles of Stockton's men checked their advance, and turning they fled in every direction, leaving a number of their horses dead upon the field. The "Battle of the Plains", as Stockton calls it, was over. The loss on the American side was five wounded; on the other side one man was killed and an unknown number wounded. Stockton's force numbered about 600 men, but not all of them took part in the engagement. The Californians had about 300. The small loss on the American side was due to the inefficient weapons with which the Californians were armed and to the poor quality of their home-made gun powder, manufactured at San Gabriel. The small loss of the Californians was due to the long range at which most of the fighting was done and to the execrable marksmanship of Stockton's sailors and marines. After the battle, Stockton continued his march and crossed the river below the city, where he encamped on the right bank.
On the morning of the 10th, as he was about to resume his march, a flag of truce, borne by De Celis and Alvarado, Californians, and Wm. Workman, an Englishman, came into camp. The commissioners offered the peaceful surrender of the city on condition that the Americans should respect the rights of property and protect citizens. The terms were agreed to and Stockton's army marched into the city. The Americans met no hostile demonstrations, but it was very evident that they were not welcome visitors. The better class of the native inhabitants closed their homes and took refuge with friendly foreigners or retired to ranchos in the country; the fellows of the lower class exhausted their vocabularies against the "gringoes." Flores, after the "Battle of La Mesa", retreated up the Arroyo Seco to the San Pasqual ranch, where he established his camp. Stockton, not aware of the location of the enemy and fearful of an attack, determined to fortify the town. On the 11th, Lieut. Emory of Kearney's staff sketched a plan for a fort; on the 12th, the site was selected on what is now Fort Hill, and work was begun and continued on the 15th and 16th.
We left Fremont's battlaion on its march down the coast from Monterey. The rains set in early and were heavy; the roads were almost impassable and the men suffered from the inclemency of the weather and from lack of supplies. The horses nearly all died and part of the artillery had to be abandoned. On January 11th the battalion reached San Fernando valley, where Fremont received a note from Gen. Kearney informing him of the defeat of the Californians and the capture of the city. The battalion advanced and occupied the mission buildings. Jesus Pico had been arrested near San Luis Obispo, having broken his parole. He was tried by court-martial and sentenced to be shot; but Fremont pardoned him and he became in consequence a most devoted friend. He now volunteered to find the Californian army and induce them to surrender to Fremont. He found a part of the force encamped at Verdugo and urged Flores, who in response [p. 75] to a message had come from the main camp at San Pasqual, to capitulate to Fremont, claiming that better terms could be secured from the latter than from Stockton. A council was held and the Californians decided to appeal to Fremont, but Flores resolved to quit the country and started that same night for Sonora. Before leaving he transferred the command of the army to Gen. Andres Pico.
[p. 75 Gen. Andres Pico, 1908e, p. 75]
Gen. Pico, on assuming command, appointed Francisco Rico and Francisco de la Guerra to go with Jesus Pico and confer with Col. Fremont. Fremont appointed as commissioners to negotiate a treaty, Major P.B. Reading, Major W.H. Russell and Captain Louis McLane. On the return of Rico and de la Guerra to the California camp, Gen. Pico appointed as commissioners José Antonio Carrillo and Augustin Olvera and then moved his army to a point near the river at Cahuenga. On the 13th, Fremont moved his camp from San Fernando to Cahuenga. The commissioners met in a deserted ranch house at that place and the treaty, or capitulation, of Cahuenga was drawn up and signed. The principal stipulations of the treaty were that the Californians should surrender their arms and agree to conform to the laws of the United States. They were to be given the same privileges as citizens of the United States and were not to be required to take an oath of allegiance until a treaty of peace was signed between the United States and Mexico. General Pico surrendered two pieces of artillery and a few muskets and disbanded his men.
On Jaunuary 14th, Fremont's battalion marched through the Cahuenga pass and entered Los Angeles, four days after its surrender to Stockton. Commodore Stockton approved the treaty, although it was not altogether satisfactory to him, and on the 16th he appointed Col. Fremont governor of the territory. Gen. Kearney claimed that under his instructions from the War Department, he should be recognized as governor. For some time there had been ill feeling between Stockton and Kearney. This precipitated a quarrel. Gen. Kearney and his dragoons left Los Angles on the 18th for San Diego and on the 20th Commodore Stockton and his sailors and marines left the city for San Pedro, where they embarked on a man-of-war to rejoin their ships at San Diego. Stockton was shortly after this superseded in the command of the Pacific squadron by [p. 76] Commodore Shubrick. Col. Fremont was left in command at Los Angeles. Col. P. St. Geroge Cooke arrived on January 27th, with his Mormon battalion, at San Luis Rey. This force consisted of five companies of Mormons who, after a long march by way of New Mexico and Arizona had reached California too late to assist in its conquest. From San Diego, Gen. Kearney sailed to San Francisco and from there went to Monterey, where he established his governorship. California now had a governor in the north and one in the south. Col. Cooke was appointed military commander of the south and brought his Mormon troops to Los Angeles. Fremont's battlalion was mustered out and he was ordered to report to Gen. Kearney at Monterey. He did so and passed out of office after a nominal service of two months. Gen. Kearney tuned over the command of the troops in California to Col. R.B. Mason, who became military governor of the territory.
The First New York Infantry had been recruited in Eastern New York in the summer of 1846 for the double purpose of conquest and colonization. It came to the coast well supplied with provisions and with implements of husbandry. On its arrival November 6th, 1847, the regiment was divided up and sent to different places on guard duty. Two companies, A. and B,, under Lieut.-Col. Burton, were sent to Lower California, where they saw some hard service and took part in several engagements. Col. Cooke resigned his position as commandant of the south and Col. J.D. Stevenson of the New York Volunteers was assigned to the command. The Morman battalion was mustered out in July and Companies E. and G. of the New York Volunteers and a company of United States dragoons did guard duty at Los Angeles. Another military organization that reached California after the conquest was Company F of the Third United States Artillery. It landed at Monterey, January 27th, 1847, under command of Captain C.Q. Thompkins. With it came Lieut. E.G.C. Ord, William T. Sherman and H.W. Halleck, all of whom were prominent afterward in California and attained national reputation during the civil war.
During 1847-48 until the treaty of peace between the United States and Mexico was proclaimed, garrisons were kept in all of the principal towns and the government of the territory was quasi-military. Attempts were made to establish municipal governments in the towns, which were successful in the north; but in Los Angeles there were some clashing between Col. Stevenson and the "hijo del pais." There were rumors of uprisings and of Mexican troops on the way to recapture the place. Col. Stevenson completed the fort on the hill, begun by Lieut. Emory, and named it Fort Moore. There were no hostile acts by the citizens and the asperities of war were soon forgotten, as the natives became reconciled to the situation.
The treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo was concluded on February 2nd, 1848. It was ratified at Washington March 10th; at Querataro May 30th, and was proclaimed by the President of the United States July 4th. The news reached Cali- [p. 77] fornia August 6th and was proclaimed next day by Gov. Mason. The war was over and California had now become a territory of the United States. Gov. Pio Pico returned to California from Mexico in August, 1847. Col. Stevenson, fearing that he might incite rebellion, placed him under arrest, but he was soon convinced that Pico's intentions were harmless and gave him his liberty.
A large overland immigration from the United States arrived in California in 1846 and 1847. The Donner party, made up principally of immigrants from Illinois were caught in the snows of the Sierra Nevada in October, 1848, and wintered at a lake since known as Donner's Lake. Of the original party, numbering eighty-seven, thirty-nine perished of starvation and exposure; the remainder were brought to Sutter's Fort by rescuing parties sent out from California.
While the treaty negotiations were pending between the United States and Mexico, an event occurred in California that ultimately changed the destinies of the territory. This was the discovery of gold, January 24th, 1848, at what is now known as Coloma, on the American river, in the foothills of the Sierra Nevada mountains, about thirty-five miles above Sutter's Fort. Gold had previously been discovered on the San Francisquito Rancho, about forty-five miles northwesterly from Los Angeles, in the spring of 1841. Placers had been worked here, principally by Sonoran miners, up to the breaking out of the Mexican war. But the gold fields were of limited extent, water was scarce, the methods of mining crude and wasteful and this discovery created little excitement. Both discoveries were purely accidental. The first discoverer, Lopez, was hunting for stray horses. While resting under an oak tree and amusing himself by digging wild onions with his sheath knife, he turned up a nugget of gold. He made known his discovery and a number of persons came from Santa Barbara and Los Angeles to work in these placers. John W. Marshall, who made the second discovery, was engaged in building a sawmill for Captain Sutter, proprietor of Sutter's Fort and owner of an extensive grant at the junction of the American and Sacramento rivers. Marshall, to deepen the race, turned a head of water through it. The next morning while examining the effect of the water, he picked up in the race, a round piece of yellow metal, which he thought might be gold. Searching further he found several of these nuggets. He went to the fort to notify Sutter of his discovery. Sutter tested the metal with aqua fortis, pronounced it gold, and returned with Marshall to the mill to [p. 78] make further investigations. The men working on the mill had discovered the nature of the metal and had also been collecting it. Sutter found several nuggets and before leaving the mill exacted a promise from the men to keep the discovery a secret for six weeks. Beside the sawmill he was building a large flouring mill near the fort and he feared all of his men would desert for the mines. But the secret could not be kept. Mrs. Wimmer, who did the cooking fo the men at the mill, told a teamster and he told the men at the fort. The news spread slowly at first and there were many who would not believe the report. It was three months before the rush began. Kemble, the editor of the California Star, visited the mines two months after their discovery and upon his return to San Francisco pronounced them a sham and advised people to stay away. During April considerable quantities of gold were received in San Francisco and the excitement became intense. The city had been building up rapidly since the conquest; but now the rush to the mines almost depopulated it. Houses were left tenantless, business was suspended, ships were left in the bay without sailors, soldiers deserted from the forts and rancheros left their grain unharvested.
The news did not spread abroad in time to bring many gold-seekers into California during 1848. In the spring of 1849, the great rush from the outside world began-both by land and by sea. Gold had now been discovered over an area of more than two hundred miles and new fields were constantly being opened. San Francisco, which was the great entrepot for commerce and travel by sea, grew with astonishing rapidity. At the time of the discovery of gold the population of San Francisco was about 800 and the white population of California about 6000. At the close of 1849 the population of the territory numbered one hundred thousand, four-fifths of which had reached it in that one year. During 1848 Sutter's Fort was the great distributing point for the mines. Sacramento was laid out in 1849 and soon became the chief commercial city of the interior. At the end of the year its population had reached 5000.
California, in 1848, was still held as a conquered country. The Mexican laws were in force and the government was half civil and half military. The rapid influx of population brought complications. After the treaty was proclaimed in California, August 7th, 1848, Gov. Mason promulgated a code of laws that were intended to tide over affairs until a territorial government could be established by Congress. It was not satisfactory to Americans. Gov. Mason was a faithful and conscientious military officer with but little knowledge of civil affairs. He did the best he could under the circumstances, but he was able to exercise very little authority, either civil or military. His soldiers deserted to the gold fields and the municipal governments were anomalous affairs, generally recognizing no authority above themselves. Having been in the military service for thirty years, he asked to be relieved. April 12th, 1849, Brigadier-General Bennett K. Riley arrived at Monterey and the next day entered upon the duties of his office as governor. Brig.-Gen. Persifer F. Smith was made military com- [p. 79] mander of the United States troops on the Pacific coast. Most of the troops he brought with him deserted at the first opportunity after their arrival.
[p. 79 Colton Hall, Monterey, 1908e. p. 79]
A year had passed since the treaty of peace was signed, but Congress had done nothing for California. The pro-slavery element in that body was determined to fasten the curse of slavery on a portion of the territory acquired from Mexico and all legislation was at a standstill. The people were becoming restive under the mixed military and civil government. The question of calling a convention to form a state constitution had been agitated for some time. Conforming to the expressed wish of many leading men of the territory, Governor Riley called an election August 1st, 1849, to elect delegates to form a state constitution, or a territorial government, if that should be seen best, and to elect judges, prefects and alcaldes for the principal municipal districts. The convention was to consist of thirty-seven delegates, but forty-eight were elected, and when it met at Monterey, September 1st, 1849, in Colton Hall, this number was seated. Colton Hall was a stone building erected by Alcalde Walter Colton for a town hall and schoolhouse. The money to build it was derived partly from fines and partly from subscriptions and the greater part of the construction work was done by prisoners. It was at that time the most commodious public building in the territory.
Of the forty-eight delegates, twenty-two were from the northern states, fifteen from the slave states, four were of foreign birth and seven were native Califorians. Several of the latter neither spoke nor understood English and Wm. E.P. Hartnell was appointed interpreter. Dr. Robert Semple of Bear Flag fame was elected president; Wm. G. Marcy secretary, and J. Ross Browne reporter. Early in the session the slavery question was disposed of by adopting a section declaring that "neither slavery nor involuntary servitude, unless for the punishment of crimes, shall ever be tolerated in this state." The question of fixing the boundaries of the future state excited the most discussion. The pro-slavery faction was led by Wm. M. Gwin, who had recently come to the territory with the avowed intention of representing the new state in the United States senate. The scheme of Gwin and his southern associates was to make the Rocky mountains the eastern boundary. This would create a state with an [p. 80] area of about four hundred thousand square miles. They reasoned that when the admission of the state came before Congress the southern members would oppose the admission of so large a territory under a free state constitution and that ultimately a compromise would be affected. California would be split in two from east to west, the old dividing line, the parallel of 36° 30" would be established, and Southern California would come into the Union as a slave state. There were, at this time, fifteen free and fifteen slave states. If two states, one free and one slave, were made out of California territory, the equilibrium would be preserved. The Rocky mountain boundary was adopted at one time, but in the closing days of the session the free state men discovered Gwin's scheme and it was defeated. The present boundaries were established by a majority of two.
[p. 80, Hon. Wm. M. Gwin, 1908e, p. 80]
A committee had been appointed to receive propositions and designs for a state seal. But one design was received, presented by Caleb Lyon, but drawn by Robert S. Garnett. It contained a figure of Minerva; a grizzly bear feeding on a bunch of grapes; a miner with his gold rocker and pan; a view of the Goldern Gate with ships in the bay and peaks of the Sierra Nevada in the distance; thirty-one stars and above all the word "Eureka." The convention adopted the design as presented. The constitution was completed on October 10th and an election was called by Governor Riley for November 13th, to ratify the constitution, elect state officers, a legislature and members of Congress. At the election Peter H. Burnett was chosen governor; John McDougall, lieutenant-governor; George W. Wright and Edward Gilbert, members of congress. During the session of the legislature, Wm. M. Gwin and John C. Fremont were elected to the United States Senate.
San José had been designated as the state capital. On December 15th the state government was inaugurated there. The legislature consisted of sixteen senators and thirty-six assembly-men. On the 22nd the legislature elected the remaining state officers, viz.: Richard Roman, treasurer; John S. Houston, controller; E.J.C. Kewen, attorney-general; Charles J. Whiting, surveyor-general; S.C. Hastings, chief justice; Henry A. Lyons and Nathaniel Bennett, associate justices. The legislature continued in session until April 22nd, 1850. Although this law-making body was named the "Legislature of a thousand drinks", it did a vast amount of work and did most of it well. It divided the state into twenty-seven counties and provided for county government. It also provided for the [p. 81] incorporation of cities and towns; passed revenue and other necessary laws, both civil and criminal.
California was a self constituted state. It had organized a state government and put it into operation wihout the sanction of Congress. It had not been admitted into the union and it actually enjoyed the privileges of statehood for nine months before it was admitted. When the question of admission came before congress it evoked a bitter controversy. The senate was equally divided-thirty members from slave states and thirty from the free states. There were among the southern senators some broad-minded men, but there were many extremists on the subject of slavery-men who would sacrifice their country in order to extend and perpetuate that sum of all villainies-slavery. This faction resorted to every known parliamentary device to prevent the admission of California under a free state constitution. On August 13th the bill for admission finally came to a vote; it passed the senate-thirty-four ayes to eighteen nays. Even then the opposition did not cease. Ten of the southern extremists joined in a protest against the action of the majority. In the house the bill passed by a vote of one hundred and fifty to fifty-six. It was approved and signed by President Fillmore September 9th, 1850. On the 11th of September the California senators and congressmen presented themselves to be sworn in. The southern faction of the senate, headed by Jefferson Davis, who had been one of the most bitter opponents to admission, objected. But their protest came too late.
The news of the admission of California as a state reached San Francisco on the morning of October 18th, by the mail steamer Oregon. Business was at once suspended, courts adjourned and the people went wild with delight. Messengers mounted on fleet horses spread the news throughout the state. Everywhere there were rejoicing. For ten months the state government had been in full operation; its acts were now legalized and it continued in power without change or [p. 82] interruption under the officers elected in 1849 for two years. The first state election after admission was held in October, 1851. John Bigler was elected governor.
[p. 82] Celebration of Admission of California, into the Union. Corner of Clay and Kearney Streets, San Francisco-1850. 1908e, p. 82]
[p. 82] Chapter X. Vigilance Committees. Growth and Prosperity., p. 82
The tales of the fabulous richness of the California gold fields were spread throughout the civilized world and drew to the state all classes and conditions of men-the bad as well as the good. They came from Europe, from South America and from Mexico; from far Australia and Tasmania came the ex-convict and the "ticket-of-leave" man; and from Asia came the "Chinee." In 1851 the criminal element became so dominant as to seriously threaten the existence of the chief city of the state-San Francisco. Terrible conflagrations swept over the city that year and destroyed the greater part of the business portion. The fires were known to be of incendiary origin. The bold and defiant attitude of the lawless classes led to the organization of the better element into a tribunal known as the "Vigilance Committee," which disregarded the legally constituted authorities, who were either too weak or too corrupt to control the law-defying element and took the power in its own hands. It tried and executed, by hanging, four notorious criminals-Jenkins, Stuart, Whitaker, and McKenzie. Such vigorous measures adopted by the Committee [p. 83] soon purified the city from the worst class that preyed upon it. Several of the smaller towns and some of the mining camps also form "vigilance committees" and a number of rascals who had fled San Francisco met a deserved fate in these places.
During the early fifties the better elements in the population of San Francisco were too much engrossed in the rushing business affairs of that period of excitement, to give thought to political affairs and consequently the government of the city drifted into the hands of vicious and corrupt men. Many of the city authorities had obtained their offices by fraud and ballot stuffing and instead of protecting the community against scoundrels, they protected the scoundrels against the communiity. James King, an ex-banker and a man of great courage and persistence, started a small paper called the Daily Evening Bulletin. He vigorously asssailed the criminal elements and the county and city officials. His denunciations at last aroused public sentiment. The murder of United States Marshal Richardson by a gambler named Cora further inflamed the public mind. It was feared that, by the connivance of the county officials, Cora would escape punishment. The trial resulted in a hung jury and there were strong suspicions that some of the jury had been bribed. King continued through the Bulletin to hurl his most bitter invectives against the corrupt officials. He published the fact that James Casey, a supervisor from the twelfth ward, was an ex-convict from Sing Sing prison. Casey waylaid King, May 14th, 1856, at the corner of Montgomery and Washington streets, and in a cowardly manner shot him down. Casey immediately surrendered himself to a deputy sherff, Lafayette McByrne, who was near. King was not killed outright, but the physicians, after an examination, pronounced the case hopeless; Casey was confined in the city jail and as a mob began to gather there, he was taken to the county jail for greater safety. A crowd pursued him, crying, "Hang him, kill him." At the jail the mob was stopped by an array of deputy sheriffs, police officers and a number of Casey's personal friends-all armed. The excitement spread throughout the city. The old Vigilance Committee of 1851, or rather a new organization out of the remnants of the old one, was formed. Five thousand men were enrolled within a few days, arms were procured and headquarters secured on Sacramento street between Davis and Front. William T. Coleman, chairman of the old vigilantes, was made the president and Isaac Bluxon, Jr., was the secretary; Chas. Doane was elected chief marshal of the military division.
The San Francisco Herald, edited by John Nugent, then the leading paper of the city, came out with a scathing editorial denouncing the vigilance committee. The merchants at once withdrew advertising patronage. The next morning the paper appeared reduced from forty columns to a single page, but still hostile to the committee. It finally died from lack of patronage. Sunday, May [p. 84] 18th, 1856, the military divison was ready to storm the jail if necessary to obtain possession of the prisoners, Casey and Cora. The different companies, 1500 strong and with two pieces of artillery marched from their headquarters and completely invested the jail. One of these guns was planted to command the door of the jail, and a demand was made on Sheriff Scannell for the prisoners. The prison guards made no resistance; the prisoners were surrendered at once and taken to the headquarters of the vigilantes. On May 20th, while the murderers were on trial the death of King was announced. Both men were convicted and sentenced to be hanged. King's funeral, the largest and most imposing ever seen in San Francisco, took place on the 23rd. While the funeral cortege was passing through the streets, Casey and Cora were hanged in front of the windows of the vigilante's headquarters. About an hour before his execution Cora was married to a notorious courtesan, Arabella Ryane, better known as Bell Cora.
Governor J. Neely Johnson at first seemed inclined not to interfere with the vigilance committee; but afterward, acting under the advice the Volney E. Howard, David S. Terry and others of the dominant pro-slavery faction, he issued a proclamation commanding the committee to disband-to which no attention was paid. The governor then appointed William T. Sherman, major-general. Sherman called for recruits to suppress the uprising. Seventy-five or a hundred-mostly gamblers-respnded. Gen. Wool, in command of the troops in the Department of the Pacific, refused to loan Gov. Johnson arms to equip his "Law and Order" recruits and Gen. Sherman resigned. Volney E. Howard was then appointed major-general. A squad of vigilance committee was appointed to arrest a man named Maloney who was at the time in the company of David S. Terrey (then chief justice of the state) and several other members of the "Law and Order" party. They resisted the police and in the melee Terrey stabbed the sergeant of the party, Sterling A. Hopkins, and then he and his associates made their escape to the armory of the San Francisco Blues, one of their strongholds. When the report of the stabbing reached headquarters the great bell sounded the alarm and the vigilantes, in a very short space of time surrounded the armory and had their cannon planted to batter it down; Terrey, Maloney and the others of their party in the building, considering discretion the better part of valor, surrendered and were at once taken to Fort "Gunnybags," so known on account of a breastwork made of gunnybags filled with sand which the vigilantes had placed about the building used as headquarters. The arms of the "Law and Order" party at their various rendezvous were surrendered to the vigilantes and the companies disbanded.
Terrey was closely confined in a cell at the headquarters of the committee. He was tried for assault upon Hopkins, who finally recovered, and upon sev- [p. 85] eral other parties and was found guilty; but after he had been held a prisoner for some time, he was released. He was forced to resign his office as chief justice, however, and joined Johnson and Howard in Sacramento, where he felt safer than in San Francisco.
On July 29th, Hethrington and Brace were hanged from a gallows erected on Davis street between Sacramento and Commercial. Both of these men had committed murder. The committee transported from the state some thirty disreputable characters and a number of others deportedd themselves. A few, among them the notorious Ned McGowan, managed to keep concealed until the storm was over. A few of the exiles returning after the committee was disbanded and began suit for damages, but failed to secure anything. The committee finished its labors and dissolved with a grand parade, August 18th, 1856, after doing a most valuable work. For several years afterwards San Francisco was one of the best governed cities in the United States. It is a noticable fact that the vigilance committee was largely made up of men from the northern and western states, while the so-called "Law and order" party was composed mostly of the pro-slavery, office-holding faction which then ruled the state. The rush of gold-seekers to California in the early fifties had brought to the state a certain class of adventurerers-many of whom were too lazy or too proud to work. They were ready to engage in almost any lawless undertaking that promised plunder and adventure. The defeat of the pro-slavery politicians in their attempt to fasten their "peculiar institution" upon any part of the territory acquired from Mexico made them very bitter. The more unscrupulous among them began to look about for new fields over which slavery might be spread. As slavery could only be made profitable in southern lands, Cuba, Mexico and Central America became the arena for enacting that form of piracy known as "filibustering." Although the armed invasion of countries with which the United States was at peace was in direct violation of international laws, yet the federal office-holders in the southern states and in California, all of whom belonged to the pro-slavery element, made no attempt to prevent these invasions, but instead secretly aided them, or at least sympathized with them to the extent of allowing them to recruit men and depart without molestation. One of the leading filibusters from California was a Tennesseean by the name of Walker. His first attempt was against Lower California. He captured La Paz and established what he called the Republic of Lower California and proclaimed it slave territory. He and his army plundered and robbed wherever there was anything to be obtained. The country was so poor and his army so mutinous that he was compelled to abandon his so-called republic, after shooting several of his dupes for desertion. After this he had a varied career as a filibuster in Central America. He was captured in Honduras in 1860, court-martialed and shot.
[p. 86] State Capitals.
As has been previously stated, the contitutional convention of 1849 met in Colton Hall in Monterey. During its sessions the question of locating the capital came up. San José offered to donate a square of thirty-two acres valued at $60,000 for capitol [sic] grounds and give the free use of a building of meetings of the Legislature. The offer was accepted and the first Legislature convened there, Dec. 15th, 1849. The first capitol [sic] of the state was a two-story adobe building, 40 by 60 feet, which had been built for a hotel. This building was destroyed by fire April 29th, 1853. The accommodations at San José were not satisfactory. The Legislature next accepted a proposition from Gen. M.G. Vallejo to located the capital at his new town of Vallejo. He offered to donate 156 acres of land for a site and within two years to give $370,000 in money to be expended in the erection of public buildings. When the members of the Legislature met at the new capital January 2nd, 1852, they found a large, unfurnished and partly unfurnished wooden building for their reception. Accomodations were very poor and even food was wanting for the hungry lawmakers. Sacramento then offered its new court house as a meeting place and on the 16th the Legislature convened in that city. The great flood of 1852 inundated the town and the lawmakers were forced to reach the halls of legislation in boats-again there was dissatisfaction.
[p. 86 State Capitol, Benicia, 1908e]
Benicia now came to the front with the offer of her new city hall which was assuredly above high water mark. Gen. Valllejo had become financially embarrassed and could not carry out his contract, so it was annulled. The offer of Benicia was accepted and on May 18th, 1853, that town was declared the permanent capital.
In the Legislature of 1854 the capitol [sic] question again came to the front. Proposals were received from several aspiring cities, but Sacramento won with the offer of her new court house and a block of land between I and J, Ninth [p. 87] and Tenth streets. Then the question of locating the capital got into the courts. The supreme court decided in favor of Sacramento. Before the Legislature met again the court hours burned down. A more commodious one was at once erected and rented to the state at $12,000 a year. Then Oakland made an unsuccessful atttempt to secure the capital. Finally a bill was passed authorizing the erection of a capitol building in Sacramento at a cost not to exceed $500,000. Work was begun on the foundation in October, 1860. The great flood of 1861-62 inundated the town and ruined the foundations of the capitol. San Francisco made a vigorous efffor to secure the seat of government, but was not successful . Work was resumed on the building, the plans were changed, the edifice enlarged and finally after many delays it was ready for occupancy in December, 186